ries
ie:
BE ream
4:
ee
att
ae
RE eee aoe a oe
i)
i
ae,
"he,
“ee
MAL PN RIIA HL th
oye
Gone
LAA KR,
Ae ws
a
£
i
z
i
whe
2
Cornell Aniversity Library
BOUGHT WITH THE INCOME
FROM THE
SAGE ENDOWMENT FUND
THE GIFT OF
Henry W. Sage
1891
A. FS702, 16 | 1194.
The Bermuda islands:a contribution to th
Cornell University
Library
The original of this book is in
the Cornell University Library.
There are no known copyright restrictions in
the United States on the use of the text.
http://www. archive.org/details/cu31924004613349
“MOO HLYON SHL
wows
AsNnyaLoD 4
THE
BERMUDA ISLANDS:
A CONTRIBUTION TO THE PHYSICAL HISTORY AND ZOOLOGY
OF THE
SOMERS ARCHIPELAGO.
WITH AN EXAMINATION OF THE STRUCTURE OF CORAL REEFS.
RESEARCHES UNDERTAKEN UNDER THE AUSPICES OF THE ACADEMY OF
NATUBAL SCIENCES OF PHILADELPHIA.
BY
ANGELO HEILPRIN, F.c.s.a.,F.a.GEOGR. SOC.,
Curator-in-Charge of, and Professor of Invertebrate Paleontology at, the Academy of
Natural Sciences of Philadelphia; Professor of Geology at the Wagner Free
Institute of Science; Member of the American Philosophical Society, ete.
WITH ADDITIONS BY
Prof. J. Puayrarr McMurricn, Mr. H. A. Pirspry, Dr. GEorGE
Marx, Dr. P. R. UBLER, and Mr. C. H. Botimay.
PHILADELPHIA:
PUBLISHED BY THE AUTHOR.
ACADEMY OF NaTURAL SCIENCES.
1889.
©
CopyRIGHT, 1889, By A. HEiLprin.
PREEA OF
RINDER & KELLY,
Printers and Publishers,
Vhilad'u
Tue observations recorded in the following pages are the
outcome of a vacation-journey undertaken in the summer of
1888 in company with a class of students from the Academy
of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia. My main object in visit-
ing the islands was to satisfy my mind on certain points con-
nected with the structure and physiognomy of coral reefs, to
the study of which the Bermudas offer special advantages. I
contemplated but little work in zoology, and that which was
accomplished may be considered supplemental to the plan of
work originally laid out. It was not until my return to Phil-
adelphia that I was made aware of the extent of the zoological
material collected by us, and how little systematic study of the
fauna of the region had been made prior to our visit. Some
of our material still awaits examination; for the elaboration
of that portion which is delineated in the present volume I
am largely indebted to the labors of a number of specialists
who have kindly volunteered theirassistance. In thisconnection
I desire to acknowledge my indebtedness to Prof. J. Playfair
MeMurrich, formerly of Haverford College; to Mr. H. A.
Pilsbry, of the Academy of Natural Sciences; to Dr. George
Marx, of Washington; to Dr. P. R. Uhler, of Baltimore ; to
the late Mr. C. H. Bollman, of Bloomington, Ind.; and to two
of my immediate assistants, Messrs. J. E. Ives and Witmer
Stone.
To Miss A. Peniston, of Peniston’s, Bermuda, I am under
special obligation for the use of much new material illustrating
the Bermudian fauna ; and Iam similarly indebted to Dr. W. H.
Dall, of the U. 8. National Museum, Washington, for having
placed at my disposition the collection of Bermuda shells made
a few years ago by Mr. G. Brown Goode.
Finally, I desire to convey my thanks to the members of
my class—Messrs. J. E. Ives, Witmer Stone, Roberts Le Bou-
tillier; Misses Emma Walter, Mary A. Schively, Virginia
Maitland, Emily G. Hunt, Ella Hunt—all of whom rendered
much valuable assistance either in the field or in the labora-
tory.
A. H.
AcapEmy oF Natura Sciencrs,
Philadelphia, September, 1889.
CONTENTS.
The Bermuda Islands. (encral Impressions.
The Outer Reef.
Physical History and Geology.
The Coral-Reef Problem.
Relationship of the Bermudian Fauna.
Zoology of the Bermudas.
Zoology (continued).
Zoology (Arthropoda).
Zoology (Mollusca).
Notes on the Literature of Coral Reefs.
Results of Geological Observations.
PAGE.
97
. 136
. 146
166
. 202
46
Summary of Observations on the Bermudian Fauna 95
CORRECTIONS.
PAGE.
40. For “ perspicuity”’, sixth line from top, read perspicacity.
58. In place of the words * more rapid”, third line from top, substitute greater.
102. For “ pediculate”, eighth line from bottom, read peutcel/ate.
THE BERMUDA ISLANDS.
My first impression of the Bermudas was one of disappoint-
ment. I had heard so much of the “hundred islands,” of the
luxuriant vegetation, that I found it difficult to realize that
these undulating hills, rising in their garb of withered green,
were in reality the far-faméd pearl of the Atlantic. But our
visit was timed for the month of July, and possibly the withered
condition of the vegetation had something to do with this
feeling of disappointment. The clumps of palmettos which are
bunched against the hillsides were as yet undistinguishable,
and the eye rested on a monotonous expanse of dirty green, re-
lieved here and there by dark masses of the Bermuda juniper,
which, from a distance, recalled the cloud-shadowed patches of
our northern mountain slopes. Innumerable particles of
white cottages gleamed forth in the bright sunlight, but their
uniform brilliancy only served to intensify the sombreness of
the background which they illumined.
I had, from assumed geological knowledge, expected to see
a long white crest rolling over the outer reef, but in this ex-
pectation I was also disappointed. We were being carried in
on the flood, and no trace of this natural parting of the waters
2 THE BERMUDA ISLANDS.
was visible. As we approached nearer to the shore, however,
abrupt changes in the color of the water revealed the position
of the coral-shallows, but we as yet saw nothing of the reef of
the imagination. Occasional jelly-fishes floated lazily by, and
the ever merry petrels were still quivering in our path of
beaten foam. Our first tropic-bird hovered about the rigging,
seemingly surprised at the early intrusion which we had per-
mitted ourselves. The flying-fishes became more numerous as
we neared the islands, and they could be frequently seen skip-
ping away five or more at a time, and usually in a direction at
right angles to the line of the ship.
I was anxious to determine the true nature of their aerial
locomotion, and to settle the vexed question of the supposed
flying movements of the fins. We accordingly watched these
interesting creatures very intently, and followed them with our
glasses over their entire course. So rapid was their motion,
however, that it was not easy to keep them within the field
of the glass, and still less easy to hold them in distinct vision,
and for a long time we really hardly knew what we saw.
We failed, however, to detect any positive continuous move-
ment on the part of the fins, and it certainly appeared as
though in all, or nearly all, cases the animal merely shot
forward as the result of some primary impetus, taking a
course nearly horizontal with the surface of the water.
This direct course, in view of the apparent method of pro-
pulsion, was certainly surprising, as it would naturally be
expected that from an initial leap the line of travel would be
that of a regular curve. But the horizontal course was pos-
sibly more apparent than real. At intervals, two or three times
in asingle flight, the animal seemed to strike the crest of a
wave, and acquire new impetus from a blow of the tail. In
this way the flight may be said to be one of distinct passages
—although without arrest of movement—in which the curve
motion largely disappears, or is at least reduced to its lowest
terms. Indeed, the successional character of the flight could be
plainly seen in the sudden jerky changes of direction which
GENERAL INPRESSIONS. 3
were marked off at irregular intervals, and at points where rising
waves apparently met the supplemental strokes of the tail.
The duration of flight was from five to eleven or twelve seconds,
while the distance covered was probably, in extreme cases, not
less than 200-300 feet, and possibly even more.
The inner waters of the reef showed those remarkable con-
trasts of color which have been so frequently dwelt upon and
depicted by travelers. From the most intense indigo we pass
abruptly to a brilliant emerald, and from this again possibly
to a bright sea-green. So sudden are the transitions that the
semblance of a natural water is largely destroyed, and for a
moment one feels inclined to doubt the reality of the scene
before him. I must confess that had I been informed in ad-
vance of these wonderful chromatic effects, I should have been
loud in pronouncing the impossibility of their occurrence, so
wholly unnatural did they appear.
Passing through the line of old hulks, whose. grass-grown
bottoms and battered planks emphasized the words of condem-
nation which relegated the ancient merchantmen to the rank
of objets d’ art, we entered the harbor of Hamilton. The fact
of its being Sunday did not obtrude itself upon the throng that
had assembled to greet us on our arrival. The helmeted red-
coat and servant, custom-house officials and steamship agents
were out in force, but they were far outnumbered by that class
of easy-going inhabitants whose hardest labor appears to be
that of doing nothing. The time-honored custom of building
connecting gang-planks instead of bringing the ship close up
to the wharf, delayed our debarkation by about a half-hour, but
delays of this or a similar kind, as we soon discovered, are of
little moment with the Bermudians.
The capital city, Hamilton, has little of interest to detain the
stranger beyond the beautiful display of exotic plants which
are to be found in the private gardens. The broad and pleas-
ant avenues which intersect the town at nearly right angles,
and glisten with that intensity of which only a white lime-
stone is capable, possess the general features of the ordinary
4 THE BERMUDA ISLANDS.
country roads, setting firm and hard under almost all condi-
tions of weather and temperature. They rarely require repair-
ing, and their even compactness well sustains the quality for
which the Bermudian roads are famous. Rain affects them but
little, except in so far as it assists as a solidifier, and a few
moments after a heavy shower they are generally as pass-
able as after prolonged exposure to the sun. Here and there
extensive villas and gardens betray opulence, but more com-
monly it is the appearance of pleasurable comfort rather than
the possession of riches which appeals to the eye of the visitor.
The recessed house-fronts, opening upon broad, shaded veran-
das, typifv a style of architecture doubtless best adapted to
the requirements of the climate, while the dazzling whiteness
of the exteriors emphasizes an amount of attention bestowed
upon house-decoration which would prubably surprise even
the proverbially neat cottagers of rural Belgium and Holland.
We were informed that the operation of whitewashing was re-
sorted to as often as twice a year, and where, as is almost uni-
versally the case throughout the island group, the drinking
water is collected as off-flows from the roof, this part of the house
is anointed as well as the sides. At intervals throughout the
town, as also in the country, extensive inclined basins have
been constructed for the reception of rain-water, and serve
as reservoirs for periods of emergency.
The shops are in the main not attractive, and on the whole
they betray a lack of energy in their management which is
surprising in a region so largely visited by strangers. We
were recommended to a presumably fashionable confectioner’s,
the floor-space in whose establishment was given up in large
part to a display of hats and clothing, and the walls to musical
instruments. In another large establishment it was reported
that anything could be obtained from a coffin to a pulpit, but
we found it impossible to procure an ordinary insect net; nor
were we better rewarded as far as this, to us necessary, article
was concerned, by inquiry elsewhere.
As before remarked, the attractive feature of the town is to
GENERAL IMPRESSIONS. 5
be found in the display of exotic plants. This exhibit is, how-
ever, not confined to Hamilton; it is the property of the entire
island group, where it has become, if the expression might be
permitted, naturalized. The unfortunate ones among us who
in the northern region ecstatically wonder at the rare treats
which the floriculturist from time to time lays before them, can
obtain but little comfort from a trip to the Bermudas. Their
earlier-formed notions of grandeur soon disappear. It would,
however, be conveying a false impression to-state that the veg-
etation is luxurious, or that it is at all comparable in exuber-
ance with the vegetation of the true tropies, or even with that
of many parts of the peninsula of Florida. On the contrary,
it is on the whole sparse, and only here and there, in favored
localities, or wherethe husbandman has largely assisted nature,
does it reveal those touches of picturesque quality which so
impress the mind of the stranger, and lead him to believe in
special luxuriance.
The native arboreal vegetation is scrubby, consisting almost
wholly of the Bermuda juniper and the sabal or palmetto, the
latter being probably the only native species of palm of the
twelve or more forms now found on the islands. The date
and cocoa-nut are both cultivated, but it is only exceptionally
that the fruit arrives at maturity. Superb specimens of the
former, the so-called “three sisters,” are found in the singularly
attractive public garden of St. George’s, but elsewhere the tree
is not exactly uncommon, rising generally in-solitary grandeur
above its less pretentious associates. Nothing, it appears to
me, can surpass in majesty the five specimens of cabbage-palm
(Oreodo:a oleracea) which adorn the roadside at Pembroke Hall,
in the outskirts of Hamilton, and justly constitute the pride of
the Bermudians. Like granite monoliths the gray shafts, 60-
70 feet in height, stand unbending to the elements that play
about them, unmoved by the force that tosses their delicate
plumes into restless activity.
Of our common deciduous trees, oaks, birches, beeches, pop-
lars, etc., there is scarcely a trace to be seen, nor is there any-
6 THE BERMUDA ISLANDS.
thing to replace them. An occasional sycamore, mulberry or
weeping-willow still reminds one of the temperate north, but
beyond these and the Bermuda juniper, there is little sugges-
tive of the woods barely six hundred miles distant. The uni-
versality of the juniper, however, imparts a decidedly north-
ern aspect to the vegetation, despite the large number of tropi-
cal elements that are embodied in it. The latter are too
irregularly scattered to constitute dominating factors in the
modeling of thelandscape. At intervals bits of delicious tropi-
cal nature surprise one; warm and sunshiny patches of palm-
land, largely overgrown with the coarse bracken, and bordered
by almost impenetrable thickets of banana and plantain, fall
refreshingly upon the eye that has perhaps become satiated
with the juniper, and that glory of the Bermudas, the oleander.
O’er hill and dale, far and near, in the garden and along the
roadside, this superb bush szatters its fragrance to the winds.
For one who has not seen the rose-flowered oleander in its na-
tive home, or in this land of its adoption, it is impossible to
conceive of the effect which is produced by the great masses of
showy blossoms which appear here, there, and everywhere
throughout the landscape. The hedges are ablaze with their
blossoms, and buried in perfume; the roadways are simi-
larly bejeweled and scented. I can only compare the general
effect with that produced by our copses of rhododendron, but,
while the flowers and foliage of the oleander suffer as indivi-
ual elements in the comparison, they more than compensate
by their masses.
A first impression of a country drive in the Bermudas,
along some such road as the “middle road” leading from
Hamilton to Flatts Village, is not soon forgotten. The gray,
one might almost say omnipresent, bounding wall, which
forms part of the natural rock of the islands, the retired and
sheltered cottages, the peculiar inhabitants—more black than
white—and above all the vegetation, strike one as strange and
novel. Birds of bright plumage, the red cardinal and blue-bird,
flit numerously before you, and although they are regular
GENERAL IMPRESSIONS. 7
members of the North American avifauna as well, they ap-
pear here in a different light than with us, since they, with the
little ground-dove, form the most noticeable, if not the domi-
nating, elements in the bird-fauna of the islands. We are in
a little world of our own, distinct from either Europe or
America.
The corn-fields of our temperate north are here largely re-
placed by fields of bananas and plantains, which are grown in
dense and almost impenetrable thickets. Although at first at-
tractive by their novel, and suggestively tropical appearance, the
eye soon wearies of the gross and wind-rifted leaves, and eagerly
falls upon the much more delicate vegetation of the bamboo,
which here and there shoots its willowy tufts 30 or 40 feet into
the air. The cane is also a graceful ornament about many of
the country cottages.
The banana “trees” were laden with fruit at the time of our
visit, and naturally we had a good opportunity to judge of the
merits of this highly-prized article of food with the Bermu-
dians. At breakfast, dinner, and supper it was a constant
accompaniment of the table, and always welcome. The fruit
is considerably smaller than the imported article with us, and
decidedly tastier or sweeter, doubtless due to its being picked
fresh from the plant. The more commonly cultivated variety
is the form known as Musa Cavendishi, or dwarf banana, which
rarely exceeds, to the bend or apex of the leaf, more than
about eight feet in height; it always presents a stubby appear-
ance, more like a great coarse weed, which has grown up
spontaneously, than a cultivated plant. Indeed, it can scarcely
be said to be under cultivation, sinve practically no attention is
paid to its proper growth and development; nature does it all.
Bunches of fruit weighing fifty pounds or more are no rarity,
and occasionally they reach nearly double this weight.
The plantain, which is more rarely seen, and whose fruit is
not held in popular favor as an article of food, isa much more
graceful and imposing plant, with leaves eight or ten feet,
or even more, in length. It grows to more than twice the
8 THE BERMUDA ISLANDS.
height of the common banana, and, although its leaves are
largely wind-rifted, it never presents the shabby appearance of
the latter.
Among the other distinctive accompaniments of the road-
side are the aloe and yucca, or Spanish bayonet. The flowering
stems of the former, rising twenty or twenty-five feet in height,
are not an uncommon feature in the landscape of the garden-
tracts. Of the fifteen or more species of cactus now found on
the islands, some of which, like the Turk’s cap, or melon cac-
tus, and the night-blooming cereus, are extensively cultivated
in the gardens, only one, the prickly-pear (Opuntia vulgaris),
can be said to be at all common. It is found scattered here
aud there about the sandy wastes, or hanging in sprawling
masses from the road walls. Some notion of the luxuriance of
growth may be had from the condition of the plants of the
night-blooming cereus. Shortly before our departure from
the islands we were hospitably invited to visit a plant of this
species in the garden of a Mrs. Peniston, just outside of Flatts
Village. It is scarcely necessary to say that we were surprised
when we beheld a plant covering an area equal to that of a fair-
sized room, and supporting upwards of 200 of the most superb
flowers! Well may the tourist go back down-hearted to his
native conservatory.
But this is not the only instance where a comparison be-
tween home and foreign products may give rise to sad reflec-
tions. Alas, how sadly changed must be the conception of a
rubber-plant, after one, who had hitherto been accustomed
only to the “ wonders” of the drawing-room and conservatory,
has seen the monster, stretching forth its arms like an oak,
at “ Par le Ville,” Hamilton !
If, however, the eye is riveted to these remarkable forms of
vegetality, it meets only with disappointment when it scans
the usually sparse herbaceous vegetation of the woodlands, or
that which covers the open meadows and rock-surfaces. We
look in vain for that rich, dense green which forms the sunny
undergrowth of our forests, for the crop of weed and grass which
GENERAL IMPRESSIONS. 9
is the wealth of our fields and pastures. Plenty of grasses
there are, it is true, but they are in most places thin and weak.
Only here and there in the deep and open hollows, as in the
neighborhood of the “marshes,” do they show anything like
luxuriance of growth. It should, however, be stated that in
many sheltered limestone hollows, as well as along similarly
protected rock-ledges, the vegetation is wonderfully profuse,
interwoven and intermatted so as to render penetration almost
impossible. The coffee-tree thicket back of Joyce’s cave, and
the convolvulus cave close by, are wonderful exhibitions of this
kind; and likewise the tract about Walsingham. But over the
greater part of the island one may sing his peans to the sage
(Lantana), which has virtually taken possession of the soil, a
not very attractive nor delightfully odorous plant.
Our headquarters during our brief stay at the Bermudas
were at the Flatts Village, a small assortment of neat houses
and cottages situated at the entrance to Harrington Sound.
A strong current passes here at high-water into the inner basin,
bringing in much sediment from the open sea, and with ita
rich assortment of animal life. Thelow-water sands constitute
one of the best collecting grounds of the archipelago, excepting,
of course, the outer reefs, and the under surface of almost every
_ stone offered something for our collections. We were fortunate
to discover here a new species of cuttle-fish (Octopus chromatus)
characterized by unusually attenuated tentacles; but, beyond
two other individuals of another species which we failed to ob-
tain, this was the only representative of this order of animals
with which we came in contact during the entirejourney. Yet,
they are said to be specially abundant just among the rock
crevices of Flatts Inlet.
It is wonderful with what tenacity these animals hold on to
their anchorages when a forcible attempt is made to eject them
from their shelters. We in vain tried by both coaxing and
pulling to dislodge one of these interesting creatures, but, de-
spite the havoc made by chopping the enveloping rock, we
10 THE BERMUDA ISLANDS.
were compelled to desist from our attempt after the labor of a
full hour and a half. The chromatic changes of the skin were
at. times very rapid, and so nicely did the animal adjust its
color to that of the rock as to render its outline barely visible.
The wonderful transparency of the greenish waters permitted
objects to be distinctly visible at depths of 20-25 feet, and where
there were no moving ripples, at even greater depths. I
doubt much, however, the statement that under ordinarily
favorable conditions objects may be distinguished at depths of
60 to 70 feet, even with the aid of the water-glass ; at any rate,
our own experience failed to give support to this commonly-
received notion. Almost everywhere within the bounding
reef, except where special circumstances have favored the de-
velopment of coral and millepore patches, the bottom is largely
barren, presenting a nearly uniform expanse of coral sand.
This is the paradise of the sea-urchin (Toxopneustes variegatus)
and of the great black sea-cucumber which is so common in
the inner waters. From the anchorage of the Villa Frascati we
watched day after day the uncouth ebony masses of the latter,
scattered like so many black blotches over the sand. Only ex-
ceptionally could they be observed to change their position,
although the rolls of sand drawn over the surface indicated
that such changes were not uncommon; not improbably their
perambulations take place largely at night-time, when their
movements would not be likely to attract attention. In the
normal condition of rest and apparent non-anitality the creat-
ure might readily pass aggressive observation, even though
it be the most conspicuous object on the bottom; and in thus
deceiving what might otherwise be formidable enemies it is
probably largely assisted by its forbidding black color. It is
a significant fact, although it may hold no special relation in
the matter, that another form of holothurian (like the latter,
new to science), of almost equal size, and with a ground color
of reddish-yellow, occupies the same haunts, but in vastly di-
minished numbers. Can it be that it is suffering extermina-
tion through the possession of a more attractive, even though
less apparent, coloration ?
GENERAL IMPRESSIONS. 11
Some of the pleasantest of our leisure hours in the Bermudas
were passed in gazing into the kaleidoscopic waters which
bathe the gardens of the Villa Frascati, and who that has once
glanced into this liquid glass can forget the picture that is there
presented? A giant palette dipped beneath the water. We
have the same bright smudges of cardinal and Jemon-yellow,
the streaks of green and blue, the purples, oranges, and blacks
—in short, all that brilliancy and wealth of color which belong
to the painter’s upper row. A species of encrusting sponge,
possibly a Microscionia, made large patches of the brightest
red on some of the detached rock, while immediately alongside,
another sponge formed clumps of equally brilliant yellow, and
still another, lesser patches of green. This violent contrast of
color, which is still farther intensified by the whiteness of the
supporting coral sand, is kept in a pure key. There is no dis-
cord, and not very much more true harmony ; it is strongly
marked individuality. If any one still doubted that ocean
water had a natural color of its own, a single glance at the
flowing emerald would have been sufficient to dispel all doubts
in the matter.
The most beautiful of the inner waters of the archipelago
is Harrington Sound, an almost closed lagoon which extends
for about three miles eastward from Flatts Village. Its only
open communication with the sea is by way of I latts Inlet, the
extreme contraction of which compels the water to flow in and
out with the fury of a mill-race. We did much of our dredg-
ing here, but scarcely met with that success which we had
anticipated. The bottom is manifestly largely a sand-barren,
and in a general sense unproductive. We, however, picked up
specimens of a beautiful new species of Chromodoris, and
quantities of a remarkably crassiform Chama. The latter
more nearly approaches a fossil from the Pliocene deposits of
Florida than any other species with which I am acquainted.
Along the borders of the Sound the coral-growth, consisting
mainly of Isophyllia, Oculina and Siderastreea, is largely
developed, but we everywhere failed to detect traces of the
12 THE BERMUDA ISLANDS.
large meandrineform types which form such a prominent
feature in the life of Castle Harbor. In the latter, again, the
Tsophyllias were largely wanting. Probably upon the much
greater depth of water in Harrington Sound, and the ¢ absence
of a submarine platform, is dependent mainly the difference
in the coral life of the two almost contiguous bodies of water.
It is difficult to conceive of a more beautiful and refreshing
sight than that which is presented by the sheltered coral pools,
with their wealth of color, which bite here and there beneath
the crumbling banks. Corals, millepores, and stone-encrusting
Alge vie with each other in building up the common domain,
whose most intricate details are revealed by the transparency
of the waters. Even the tiny polyps may be seen expanding
their delicate crowns of tentacles. What a charming vision of
the busy life about us! The sea-anemones are especially
abundant in these rock-shelters, and some of them are strik-
ingly beautiful; but on the whole they are less brilliantly
colored than those of our northern shelters. Among the corals,
some of the species of Isophyllia were the most highly colored,
the browns and greens being remarkably rich. Below a depth
of a comparatively few feet coral-life largely disappeared, and
along the actual floor of the Sound, say at depths of from six
to eight fathoms, we only obtained Oculina. No haul of over
ten fathoms ever brought up a coral.
During much of our stay on the Sound the water was very
rough, and its inroads upon the bordering cliffs and crags were
painfully manifest. The Sound is now actually making, and
without question it has been in this condition of self-formation
for a long time past. The ledges, islands, and isolated rocks
all speak of destruction, and of the former occupancy of the
basin by dry land. At the present time the general depth of
the Sound may be taken at about 45 to 60 feet, although our
line frequently sounded 12 fathoms; the greatest measurement
was made in what is known as the Devil’s Hole opposite
Peniston Point, where the line ran out 14 fathoms. I was
informed, however, by the American Consul, the late Mr. Allen,
GENERAL IMPRESSIONS. 13
that soundings had been obtained in the same place of 16
fathoms. The dredge-net usually brought up from these
greater depths only a grayish-white mud or ooze, largely made
up of coral and coralline fragments and the debris of the
crumbling cliffs. among which the perfectly formed tests of a
limited number of Foraininfera—Globigerina, Orbiculina—
could be made out. A deposit is manifestly accumulating on
the floor of the Sound, and at a rate evidently much more
rapid than that which marks disappearance through solution.
Our journeyings through the country were largely made by
cart, a ramshackle two-wheeled arrangement which we canopied
so as to protect us from the force of the sun’s rays. That a
party of nine, men and women closely huddled together, with
an arrangement for traveling such as we had, should’ have at-
tracted some little attention, or even drawn out the smiles of
the kindly-disposed natives, goes without saying. We found
it impossible at the Flatts to obtain a two-horse conveyance of
any description, consequently we were compelled to put up with
a simple cart, or with that in combination with another vehicle.
Fortunately, the excellent condition of- the country roads ren-
dered traveling even in our rude contrivance fairly comtortable,
while the load was not over burdensome to the single animal.
The statement that has gained currency that two-horse con-
veyances are practically unknown in the Bermudas has noth-
ing to support it.
We did not suffer so much from the glare of the roads as we
had anticipated. The anticipatory warnings concerning green -
umbrellas and black-goggles had succeeded in thrusting these
articles of defense upon us, but they were barely more needed
here than in any other limestone region. Nor did we find the
heat of the sun to be of that oppressive quality which report
madeit. The highest marking of the thermometer during our
sojourn (July) was 84° F., considerably lower than what
we should have expected, during the same season of the year,
for the region about Philadelphia or New York. We found
but little difference between the temperature of night and day—
14 THE BERMUDA ISLANDS.
some four or five degrees—and usually the early hours of morn-
ing were the most oppressive. At that tine the atmosphere is
more settled, and in a measure lacking in those refreshing
breezes which make the climate, despite the heaviness which
a moisture-laden atmosphere brings with it, pleasantly bearable.
Except in localities where you are temporarily debarred from
the benefits of the breezes, the heat isin no way oppressive, and
on the open waters we found that the difficult work of dredge-
hauling could be done without special fatigue, and without
drawing perspiration. Indeed, this work was not nearly as
trying as I found it two years before in the waters of Nantucket
Island. The balmy air of evening and the later hours is de-
licious, and permits of a night being passed in the open air
without discomfort. Only from sudden showers is any annoy-
ance to be anticipated. These, however, are sometimes very
sudden, and seemingly the rain falls at times when it would
be least expected. It was a common saying with us that a
clouded sky could be relied upon, whereas: the opposite was
threatening. The passing off of a shower is, however, just as
rapid as its beginning, and often the whole rain was over in a
few seconds. Only once did we experience a lasting furious
rain, but then the water descended in torrents. But within an
hour after the close even of this rain the roads were practically
dry.
IT.
THE NORTH ROCK.
In the open ocean, north of Flatts Village, lies a cluster of
rocks upov which the foot of man has thus far but rarely trod.
Gray and weather-beaten, they are yet firm as of old, and bear
well the marks that a struggle with the sea has impressed upon
them. During some six hours of the day these isolated rock
pinnacles, of which the largest barely exceeds the double-
height of man, are united to one another by a species of or-
ganic or living basement, while during the remaining hours
they are immersed in the blue coralline sea by which they are
everywhere surrounded. Nine miles distant lies Bermuda—
or more properly, the hundred or more islands and islets which
together constitute the Bermudas—a soft line of purple
stretched against the southern sky. To the southwest the eye
detects the white shaft of Gibb’s Hill Light, a giant pillar cap-
ping one of Bermuda’s greatest elevations—245 feet—while to
the southeast the pharos of St. David’s, the all-guardian of the
archipelago, plays hide-and-seek with the foot-hills that nestle
at its base. Beyond is all sea—the green-blue ocean in whose
bosom are locked the treasures of an unseen world.
This fragment of a universe is practically all that is to be
seen of the great outer reef, which lies buried, even at low
water, at some little depth beneath the surface. The distance
from the main-land renders access to it difficult, and it is only
under exceptionally favorable conditions of water that it can
be approached with advantage. Even after the surrounding
shallows have been crossed it is not yet easy to effect a landing,
16 THE BERMUDA ISLANDS.
and we found that our pilot was little inclined to risk his boat
in the ragged growth of millepore and serpula which every-
where forms the superficial portion of the growing reef. This
inaccessibility, doubtless, accounts for the fact that so few
among the visitors to these distant shores—or for that matter,
even residents—have visited this remarkable spot, which is, be-
yond comparison, the most interesting feature which the Ber-
mudas have to offer. To those who have seen the reef merely
by sailing over it, it can be well said that they have but half
seen it—they have missed its greatest charms.
The traverse of the inner waters between Flatts Village
and the reef is of itself replete with interest. Here and there
glimpses of the bottom reveal wonders of a natural fairy-land
which bid welcome to a realm of indescribable beauty. Corals
of bright orange and yellow, sponges of black and cardinal,
nodding sea-fans of purple and silver, and fishes of all that
brillianey of coloring which distinguishes the ichthyic element
of the coralline seas, these and much more are the pictures
that appeal invitingly to a habitation in the oceanic waste.
The ruffled surface of the water bars out that clear vision
to which we are accustomed in our meadow-wanderings, but
the magic of a few drops of oil, or the stilling of the water-
glass, brings out the relief in the most wondrous detail. The
bottom bristles with a forest of rising stems and branches, the
work principally of that most indefatigable hydroid-coral, the
millepore, and through it are scattered the roses of the deep.
Countless black sea-urchins (Diadema) lie quietly nestled in the
maze, while here and there, where the animal shrubbery has
permitted the white sand to come to view, we catch passing
glimpses of the lonely black sea-cucumber (Stichopus diuboli),
quiet and motionless, as in the stiller waters of the Sound.
One of the most beautiful objects of these waters is the pink
tunicate Diazona whose long stems we hooked up in association
with one or more forms of Gorgonia.
The water shallows, and we approach the boundaries of the
outer reef; the huge brain-corals (Diploria) rise to within four
SVGNWNYEd AHL
oe
THE OUTER REEF. 17
or five feet of our keel, and show their cerebral convolutions
with the distinctness of cabinet specimens. But those of us
who are accustomed to the white corals of museum-shelves and
mantels see nothing of that description here. The internal
framework or skeleton is completely covered by the living
aninal substance, a thin film of organic jelly of the most brill-
iant orange in this instance, from the surface of which protrude
the ever-busy polyps. To conceive that these huge blocks
everywhere scattered about, three, four and five feet in diameter,
should be the silent work of these tiny organisms! But how
weak is the conception compared with that which recognizes in
the architecture of all the Bermudas principally the labors
of the coral animal !
Our launch is now fairly within the reef; we anchor, and
take to the whale-boat, determined to storm the little spot that .
nature had bequeathed to the ocean wave. We toss gently
over the inflowing billows, and at first it would seem as though
our enterprise were to terminate in failure. But a moment
more, and success is achieved. The lee-side of one of the
massive outgrowths of millepore and serpula permits usto enter
safely into our little port, and, taking the necessary precautions
to land where the solidity of the marginal growth promised
security from a too sudden plunge into the sea, we disembark,
critics might say, in not very orthodox fashion.
To those who have never seen a growing coral-reef it is
impossible to describe the magnificence of the scene. With rapt-
urous delight and wonder you gaze through the crystal waters,
and follow the infinitude of form: and color that everywhere
surrounds you. The eye rests but for a moment on one object,
it is immediately called to another. Corals, sponges, squirts,
lime-secreting Algze (nullipores) are welded together into one
vast wilderness of coloring, a carpet mosaic of the most bizarre
pattern and brilliancy. All animal life is out in holiday
attire; the crabs, the shells, the worms are painted with the
same brush and palette which were used in frescoing the corals
and sponges. Red, green, yellow, and purple blotches appear
18 THE BERMUDA ISLANDS.
everywhere, and so finely are they interwoven that the outlines
of the elementary parts lose themselves in the body-mass of the
whole. Thus has nature provided her weaker offspring with a
protective coloring, and allowed them to live almost unobserved
amid the haunts of theirenemies. We found the Diadema setosa,
the peer of all sea-urchins, very abundant on the reef, where
in magnificent contrast to the wealth of color by which it was
surrounded, its ebony-black masses stood out in prominent
relief from the coral sbelters which itinhabits. All the individ-
uals occupied recesses in the coral growth, which they had by
some means, probably, managed to keep open. It is a note-
worthy fact that while most of the animal forms inhabiting
this portion of the growing reef were brilliantly colored,
harmonizing with, and shielding one another by, the party-tints
that had been culled from the rainbow, these urchins were
alone conspicuous by the absence of any such protective cloak;
but just in their case no protective guise in the form of coloring
is needed, since these animals are abundantly able to shield
themselves by means of their greatly attenuated spines. We
found three other species of sea-urchin, Echinometra subangu-
laris, Hipponoe esculenta, and Cidaris tribuloides, fairly abundaut
in the coral shelters, the last-named species, I believe, being
now for the first time recorded from the islands.
We secured many specimens of the large Diadema for our
collections, but found that caution in handling was necessary,
lest the needle- spines would be projected into the flesh, and
there broken off in fragments. In what precise manner the
animal so deftly manages to insert its spines into the finger tips,
and leave them there as reminiscences of its existence I could
not determine; but the fact spoke of an occult operation in
painful language. The urchins are, however, not the only
animals that produce lasting impressions upon the visitor to the
reefs. The corals and millepores are all endowed with stinging
powers, and the ulcerations and swellings which their nettle-
cells produce are frequently retained in quiet discomfort for
several days. The jelly-fishes and Medusae are equally dis-
THE OUTER REEF. 19
agreeable in their companionship,’and on two occasions we
found that long after stranding, and for hours after life had
been apparently extinguished, the Portuguese-man-of-war was
still able to discharge with effect its tiny darts, and produce an
impressive irritation.
Of the larger jelly-fishes frequenting the neighborhood of the
reef we found the pink Aurelia and the rhizostome especially
numerous, and it was interesting to watch with what equabil-
ity these delicate creatures weathered the rolling billows, how
nicely they adjusted their presence so as to evade the breaking
water, and kept their pulsating bells in the comparatively
quiet zone of only a few inches depth beneath the surface.
The more tranquil pools of the reef are in places stocked
with fish, which partake of the same brilliant mould which
distinguishes the lower animals. The members of the tribe of
labroids, such as the golden “Spanish lady,” the “ blue-fish,”
and “hind” were especially conspicuous, darting rapidly from
shelter to shelter as our shadows were cast upon the water.
Wading through one of these:pools I disturbed the peace of some
thirty or forty fishes of the most intense blue and purple, but
the rapidity of their movements rendered a determination of
the species impossible. We observed, however, none of the
lovely angel-fishes, with their long streamers of blue and yel-
low, nor any of the parrot-fishes proper, which apparently find
a more congenial home in the inner waters of the archipelago.
The surface of the reef that is here exposed above low-water
is barely more than a few yards in width, and is everywhere
honey-combed into pits of greater or less depth. Many of these
pits were dry, or nearly so, while others are permanently filled
with water; but whether you examine the one or the other,
you find the same traces of a busy animal life. Tiny crabs are
especially abundant, and they may be seen scurrying about in
all directions; as elsewhere the hermits have well provided
themselves, and the moving domiciles of Purpura, Nassa, and
Columbella, with their colored patches of algal growth, are con-
spicuous objects on the floor of the reef. Seemingly none of the
20 THE BERMUDA ISLANDS.
larger or more conspicuous shells of the archipelago are found
here, nor indeed, can it be said that shells of any description
are numerous.
The predominant form of coral, at least in the upper layer,
is the Porites, whose masses of bright orange appear here and
there through the more sombre tints of the serpula by which
they are almost everywhere covered. It grows to within a few
inches of the water-line, but nowhere did we see it protrude
above the surface, even at lowest water. This is true of all the
stone-corals with which we came in contact, and also of the
millepore. But we found large encrusting patches of that sin-
gular actinioid form, Corticifera flava, completely exposed, and
beyond the reach of spray. The length of exposure is, how-
ever, short, and probably sufficient water is retained during
this time within the cavernous mass to minister properly to the
wants of the organism.
The serpula grows in dense bunches, forming a true base-
ment, which is admirably adapted toward withstanding the at-
tacks of the sea. Indeed, everywhere along the border where
the surf beats hardest, the serpula growth was most largely de-
veloped, and to such an extent as to form a raised rim or har-
rier to the more protected inner side. Breaking in on all sides
the surf has created a number of more or less irregularly oval
islets with depressed centers—or, more properly, with elevated
borders—diminutive atolls, as it were; and, indeed, this struct-
ure has led naturalists to assume that the form of the true
coral atolls, with their central lagoon and bounding outer ring,
may have been produced in much the same way, and without
the assistance of any such subsidence as was considered neces-
sary for their formation by the late Mr. Darwin. I feel satisfied,
however, that the two structures, while seemingly alike, have
practically little or nothing in common; in the one case the
central depression is merely a negative one, being such by
reason of a somewhat more rapid growth developed only from
the water-line, or within the surf; while in the other, the
hollow extends frequently to depths far beyond the zone of
THE OUTER REEF. 21
coral growth, and where, consequently, the building force is
entirely removed from the influence of special conditions exist-
ing in the superficial layers of the water. We may not yet
have fathomed the true method of the formation of coral islands,
but such evidences as I was able to obtain at the Bermudas
failed to convince me of the erroneousness of the time-honored
theory of subsidence which was first formulated by the illus-
trious Darwin, and which has so long ministered to the wants
of the geologist, and still more failed to satisfy me with the de-
mands of the younger school of geologists, who, under the lead
of the venerable Duke of Argyll, have pinned to their standard
the now almost classical motto: “Conspiracy of Silence.”
I could not readily determine to what extent the ocean side
of the reef was more profuse in its coral growth than the in-
ner side. Seemingly there could not be much difference, for
the profusion of the inner life was such as to make it difficult
to conceive how it could have been measurably exceeded.
Probably in this regard the Bermudas form an exception to
the supposed general rule which defines a comparatively barren
area immediately back of the surf. Surely, we found nothing
of the kind here.
I was also much impressed by the fact that there were here
no loose boulders of rock, such as it might have been assumed
would be thrown up by the disintegrating force of the breakers.
Everything was firm and compact, except along the margins,
where the growth of millepore formed veritable, but readily
destructible, chevaua-de-frise. Walking on this part is danger-
ous, since it is not always easy to determine how strong the
growth is, nor how soon one may find his way into one of the
numerous water-passages which honeycomb the mass. We had
experience of this danger in wading within the millepore
shallows of Devonshire Flatts. The absence of coarse debris
is, doubtless, in a measure, due to the small extent of land
exposed, and to the depth of water which covers the greater
part of the reef. A rise in the reef would probaby bring about
other conditions—as was manifestly the case formerly—but
22 THE BERMUDA ISLANDS.
even then the solidity and compactness of the growth would
render the process of undermining and disruption a slow one.
This is also true of the reefs on the south side of the island, the
crests of which are serpuloid, while the lee-slopes are fairly
covered with large Meandrinas. We but rarely came across a
loose block of stone on the beach, and where such was found
it could be generally, if not always, identified as the disrupted
part of the cliffs upon which the fury of the surf was expended.
The examination of the lime-sand of the inner waters only
exceptionally showed recognizable coral fragments, although it
was very largely composed of the debris of the more friable
millepore. Indeed, it might be said that the sand is properly
a shell and millepore sand, rather than one of coral formation,
and this is also true in a measure of the cliff-sand of the main
body of the islands.
We passed the better part of three hours on the reef, but by
the end of this time the water was gaining upon the spot
rapidly. In a few short hours the reef would again be entirely
covered, save the three gray pinnacles which constitute the lone
North Rock.
II.
THE PHYSICAL HISTORY AND GEOLOGY OF THE
BERMUDA ISLANDS.
The reefs, islands, and lagoons which together constitute
the Somers Archipelago cover an elliptical area, bearing
somewhat east of northeast, of about 220 square miles,
of which by far the greater part is occupied by water. The
land portion is confined almost wholly to the south and
southeast, where it makes a broken irregular crescent, some
fifteen miles in length, and from one to three miles in
width. Five principal islands, of which the largest, with
nearly 10,000 acres, contains approximately three-quarters of
the entire land surface exposed within the archipelago, are the
components of this crescent, about which are scattered some
two hundred or more islets and isolated rock-pinnacles. The
great body of water or lagoon, as it is sometimes called, which
lies north of this chain of islands, and is in direct communica-
tion with the open sea, is in a measure delimited by the ellipse
of the outer reef, which is wholly submerged even at low water,
except at two or three points, the most conspicuous of which is
at the North Rock.
The depth of water in this outer lagoon is, in general,
about 40-50 feet, although, exceptionally, our sounding-line
dropped to 10 or 11 fathoms. For some little distance
before the outer reef is reached the water shallows to 20-30
feet, and at various spots within the open, serpula and mille-
pore growths rise to within a foot or so of the surface, or
even completely up to it, forming irregular oval patches,
which can be distinguished even at a distance by the discolor-
ation of the waters.
24 THE BERMUDA ISLANDS.
An open continuation of this outer water is the Great
Sound, which is to an extent land-locked by the “hook”
of Main Island, and its disrupted continuation, Somerset
and Ireland Islands. At the eastern end of the archipelago
an incursion of the southern waters has formed, or helped to
form, the lagoon known as Castle Harbor, an extensive
body of water, with a depth of from 30 to 40 feet, whose
oceanic boundaries are well seen in Cooper’s, Castle and
Nonsuch Islands, and their dissociated fragments. Castle
Harbor stands also in direct communication with the northern
waters by means of one or more channels, known as “The
Reaches,” whi¢h are in part largely silted and coral-grown, and
consequently difficult of passage.
Harrington Sound, which bites into the Main Island alone,
is the most nearly. land-locked of the inner waters, and at the
same time the deepest water in the archipelago. The average
depth is probably not less than nine or ten fathoms, and our
line frequently dropped to 12 fathoms. We sounded 14
fathoms in the southern bay opposite the Devil’s Hole, and I
was informed that 16 fathoms had been obtained in the same
locality. Although two miles in length, and approximately
a mile and a half in greatest width, this extensive body of
water communicates with the outer sea by a channel not more
than 50 feet in width, the Flatts Inlet. The breaking action
of the waters, the undermined ledges, and the vertical cliffs all
clearly indicate that the Sound is still expanding, and it is
merely a question of time, if the present conditions continue,
when it will be more in the nature of an open bay than of a
land-locked lagoon.
The reefs on the south side of the archipelago approach in
places to within a hundred yards or as many feet—or even less—
of the chain of islands, from which they are separated by a
belt of water of no inconsiderable depth, and always existent.
They are, therefore, more nearly in the nature of “barrier”
than of “ fringing ” reefs, if, indeed, they can be said to strictly
belong to either one of these two divisions. Opposite the open
PHYSICAL HISTORY AND GEOLOGY. 25
way communicating with Castle Harbor we sounded nine
fathoms in the water back of the reef, and I believe that
this depth, or even a considerably greater one, must be found
in many places. On the outer side the depth of water increases
more rapidly, but not in a degree as to indicate abrupt-
ness of descent. The organic growth, which is serpuloid super-
ficially, comes to the surface in discontinuous patches, over
whose line a white surf may be seen breaking during the
greater part of the day. These are the “boilers,” or secondary
atolls, as they have been sometimes called.
The outer soundings made by the officers of the “ Challenger”
indicate a gradual descent of the bottom for a distance of
about a mile, when a much more abrupt slope begins. It is |
claimed that within the first belt the average depth does not
exceed 12 fathoms, but we sounded 13 fathoms, after making
full allowance for slip, at a distance of not more than 300 feet
from the breaking surf. Our facilities, however, did not per-
mit us to make extended observations in this direction, nor
was the condition of the water, when we crossed over the reef,
favorable for such observations. Ata point seven miles from
the northern reef the “ Challenger” obtained the extraordinary
depth of 12,000 feet, which would give an average descent of
slope of one in three, exceeding probably that of any equal
slope on the land surface. Drained of its surrounding waters,
the Bermudas would, from this side, appear like a stupendous |
tower, in comparison with which the principal mountain
peaks of the land would, as far as abruptness of slope is con-
cerned, sink into insignificance. Yet it would seem that, in a
general way, at a distance of ten miles in nearly all directions
the depth is only from 9,000 to 13,000 feet, or not more than
that which is found at an equal distance off the sub-continental
plateau. Twenty miles to the southwest-by-west of the Ber-
mudas two submerged banks come to within 20-50 fathoms of
the surface, and seemingly represent the continuation of a
range of heights of which the Bermudas constitute a section.
But not impossibly they are merely the summits of isolated
26 THE BERMUDA ISLANDS.
volcanoes, such as the Bermudas may themselves be; the dis-
tance between the two groups is amply sufficient to allow of
both of them to slope gradually and independently to their
bases without necessitating the assumption of a connecting
backbone or ridge. The great depth of water, moreover, which
lies at no great distance to the west, and likewise in the east,
would seem to offer no support to. the notion of such a sub-
merged ridge, which would necessarily have to be of limited
extent. Still, the shortness of the line cannot be looked upon
as strictly negative evidence, since abbreviated chains with
lofty summits are not absolutely unknown, even if they are
of exceptional occurrence.
The main islands of the archipelago present approximately
identical features. Gently undulating hills, rising sometimes
with the symmetry of sugar-cones, alternate with broadly open
lowland, and pleasantly diversify the landscape. Along much
of the northern shores these elevations gracefully descend to
the water-line, where they form long reaches of sand-beach,
or terminate in abrupt escarpments, largely undercut, and
usually of inconsiderable height. Viewed from an eminence,
this succession of undulating hills and dales, or perhaps more
properly stated, “ups and downs,” with their inclosed lagoons,
projecting promontories, and scattered islands and islets, forms
a most captivating picture, whose beauty is further enhanced
by the magnificent contrasts of color that are presented. To
the geologist the picture immediately suggests a region of sub-
mergence, or such as would be formed were the more interior
districts of Main Island suddenly depressed beneath the water.
At certain spots, well shown on the northern and southern
shores of Harrington Sound, and on the Walsingham tract of
Castle Harbor, the water has cut vertical faces from the hill-
slopes, and constructed cliffs of majestic and picturesque ap-
pearance. The Abbott’s Cliffs of Harrington Sound have an
altitude of probably not less than 50 or 60 feet. Along the
south shore a long line of almost continuous and imposing
cliffs faces the ocean. These receive the full force of the battling
PHYSICAL HISTORY AND GEOLOGY. 27
waters, and are cut and moulded into ragged masses wholly
unlike anything that is to be found on the opposite shore.
This picture of wild magnificence—the beetling cliffs and dash-
ing spray—is a surprise to the stranger who has conceived of
the Bermudas only from the north, and wanders over to this
side expecting to see the picture with which he is familiar re-
peated. Long before the shore is reached the character of the
work that is here being accomplished can be judged of from the
continuous booming that falls upon the ear. Deep bays, alter-
nating with bold and ragged promontories, bite through the
cliffs in some places, while at others they are still in course of
formation. Just west of Hungary Bay and at the Chequer
Board, perhaps the grandest views of destruction are presented,
but almost everywhere the picture unfolds itself in much the
same detail. We could, however, form no true conception of
the destructive power of the sea from the condition of the water
at the time of our visit to the islands. In the season of storms,
and more particularly during a hurricane, the fury of the waters
must be almost irresistible, if we give full credence to the
reports of experiences of the inhabitants; and the landmarks
that the sea has impressed upon the country leave no room for
doubt as to the authenticity of these reports. The natural
arches at Tucker’s Town, which are now not even reached by
the sea, bear ample testimony to an extent of erosion which is
not permitted to the sea in its ordinary condition; and the
same is true of the massive cliffs, some 80-90 feet, or more, in
height, which constitute the “amphitheatre ” a short distance
beyond the arches. Several considerations preclude the prob-
ability of these structures having been formed at a time when
the relations of the Jand and water were different from what
they are now, or that changes of level have taken place since
their formation. The evidences of recent encroaches of the sea
at these points are clearly visible, while there seems to be noth-
ing to indicate a late rise of the land-surface. Still, I must
admit that the observable facts at our command were not suf-
ficient to warrant usin assuming positively that there was no
28 THE BERMUDA ISLANDS.
such elevation; but the reverse could just as well have been,
and more likely was, the case.
The loftiest eminence in all the Bermudas is Sear’s Hill,
about a half mile southeast of Flatts Village, which attains the
modest height of 260 feet. We verified barometrically the
earlier determination of this height. After Sear’s Hill, the
highest point is reached in Gibb’s Hill, 245 feet. There are no
ponds, springs, nor flowing-bodies of freshwater throughout
the archipelago, although at one or two points the water of °
interior collecting pools is only feebly brackish. In a cattle
cistern or spring, near Peniston Pond, there was little or no
salinity appreciable, although the water did not appeal invit-
ingly to the human gustatory sense. The porosity of the rock’
almost immediately absorbs all falling water, and likewise con-
ducts the sea-water into the innermost parts of the islands,
where it doubtless forms a clearly defined basal zone. Much of
it must be drawn by capillarity above sea-level. All attempts
to obtain freshwater by means of artesian borings have resulted
in failure, by reason of the complete permeation of the oceanic
waters. The large interior ponds or lakes, all of which occupy
low levels, are necessarily brackish, and they support a fauna
distinctive of brackish or salt waters. A fairly large peat-bog oc-
cupies the center of Main Island, and apparently marks the
site of an ancient, now wholly desiccated, lagoon. The peat is
said to extend down to a depth of 40 or 50 feet* below the sea-
‘level, or to about the level of the floor of the great outer water
which is inclosed by the northern reef.
The rock of the islands is a granular limestone, which is in
most places still sufficiently soft to permit of being cut by
a hand-saw. On exposure to rain it hardens through cementa-
tion, or deposition of interstitial lime, and may then be con-
verted into a tough and very resisting material, which is ad-
vantageously used: in the construction of houses. Piles of
hand-sawn blocks awaiting induration are a not uncom-
*Rice: Geology of Bermuda, Bull. U. S. National Museum, No. 25, p, 7. On
the authority of General Lefroy.
PHYSICAL HISTORY AND GEOLOGY. 29
mon sight along the roadsides. The process of the binding
together of the loose particles of debris which are to constitute
a rock is sometimes a very rapid one, especially along the
water’s edge, and may be followed in its different stages.
The basal rock of the cliffs, especially on the south shore, is
in places excessively indurated, and about as resisting as a
non-siliceous limestone can well be; when struck with a ham-
mer it at times rings with all the intensity of the volcanic ring-
ing rocks, and chips off as sharp-edged flakes. The granular
structure which is so prominent in the softer rock may be re- -
tained, but it sometimes largely or wholly disappears, and
the mass appears to be homogeneously compact. The matter
of hardness or compactness is, however, not one necessarily
depending upon age, since we often find the tougher rock oc-
cupying the high level, and-overlying the softer rock below.
At other places the two kinds of rock alternate with one
another. From the constancy of its occurrence at, or near,
the base of the island, the hard suberystalline limestone is
locally known as the “ base rock ;” it serves largely, but by no
means invariably, to distinguish the old beach formation, and
thus to locate the former sea-border. The same rock forms
the lower moiety of the three pinnacles of the North Rock.
The constituent particles of the softer limestone are of about
the size of a pin’s head, or smaller, among which the debris
of shells and millepores are distinctly recognizable. Coral
fragments are apparently much less abundant, and, indeed,
it was only with difficulty that I determined these at all,
except where, at long intervals, fragments of large size were
caught up in the mass. Possibly, the finer undefined particles
may have been those of corals, whose cellular structure would
have readily lent itself to a powdering such as would com-
pletely efface determining characters. Still, the fact remains
that much, or most, of this rock is made of millepore and shell
fragments, and whatever part corals may have taken in its
formation, it cannot be considered to be a simple coral rock.
The examination of the long stretch of beach which faces the
380 THE BERMUDA ISLANDS.
north side of St. George’s Causeway also failed to show much
evidence of coral growth, although shells and millepore frag-
ments were packedl in endless quantities; the tests, perfect and
imperfect, of the foraminifer genus Orbiculina were also very
abundant. I do not wish to be understood as saying that the
islands are not really of coral formation; that a coral funda-
ment exists, needs no further demonstration than is furnished
by the rich growth of Diploria and Meandrina within the
reef-waters, and by the coral fragments and masses that are
inclosed by the beach formation. I wish merely to emphasize
the important part which organisms other than corals have
taken toward the shaping and the making of the rocks,
especially of the superficial parts which have lent themselves
to wind-action.
The true relations of the Bermudian rock were first clearly
established by Nelson.* With remarkable sagacity this ob-
server read the history of the discordant layers, here horizon-
tal, there steeply inclined, now arched in one direction, then
in another, which appear in all the sections, and he was not
slow to point out that they were the result of wind-drift—mere
shifting (calcareous) sands which had been thrown about
promiscuously by the winds, and had solidified in layers in
the positions where they had been finally dropped. This in-
terpretation stands to-day as firmly established as it stood
when it was first enunciated upwards of a half century ago.
The thin knife-sheets which are so characteristic of this drift-
rock build up massive beds, which are thrown together in
most irregular confusion—dove-tailed, apparently faulted,
lenticulated, and otherwise. No more interesting exposures can
be had than the faces of the road-walls, both in the city and in
the country, where synclines, anticlines, slopes, and horizontals
appear sometimes in the space of a few yards. At other places
no bedding, beyond the thin lamination, is apparent, and the
whole mass rests concordantly either in straight or undulating
lines.
*Trans. Geol. Suc, of London, 2d Ser., vol. v, Part I, pp. 108-128.
PHYSICAL HISTORY AND GEOLOGY. 31
The first process toward the forming of this rock must neces-
sarily be the pounding up of the material out of which it is con-
structed. Wherever the polyps build close to the surface their
habitations are attacked by the surf which they themselves
create. The long white line of foam which meets the eye of
the observer gazing southward from any eminence, and parts the
blue waters of the outer world from the more nearly green
within, is but the line of battle between the organic and the
inorganic forces. It is here that life asserts her supremacy
over the sea, and it is here that the sea maintains her right of
domain as an inheritance of prior birth. Blocks of coral and
coralline are detached and broken, their parts are rocked to and
fro in the withering crest, and ultimately, when the fragments
have been sufficiently punished by the sea, they are handed
over for further chastisement to the action of the wind. In
this way the particles are ground finer and finer, a true sand
is formed, and dunes begin to rear their heads above the ocean
level. Traveling in the line of the wind the dunes pass on-
ward, climb over one another’s backs, and comb the gently
flowing crests ; from pigmy hillocks they rise into well-fashioned |
knolls, and ultimately stand as the eminences which to-day are
the Bermudas. No one who,’on the south shore, has watched
the great tongues of moving sand,—the sand glaciers of Tucker’s
Town and Elbow Bay, for example—stealthily encroaching
upon the hill-tops of the interior, and burying everything, in
the manner of the locusts of South Africa, beneath their man-
tle of destruction, can have failed to be impressed by the char-
acter and the magnitude of the work that is being accomplished.
It is truly but the music of the sea and wind, but there is
enough of it to turn water into land. It seems, indeed, as
though Virgil had divined some such region as this when he de-
picted the home of ®olus in the following beautiful lines :—
Here Eolus, in cavern vast,
With holt and barrier fetters fast
Rebellious storm and howling blast.
They with the rock’s reverberant roar
32 THE BERMUDA ISLANDS.
Chafe blustering round their prison door:
He, throned on high, the sceptre sways,
Controls their moods, their wrath allays.
Break but that sceptre, sea and land,
And Heaven’s etherial deep,
Before them they would whirl like sand,
And through the void air sweep.
(Conington’s Acneid.)
The wolian or wind-drift character of the Bermuda Islands
is everywhere apparent; along the roads, on the hillsides, and
in the caves we find the same rock made up of organic par-
ticles. The layers or seams, inclining now one way, now in
another, point to the different positions into which the sand
had been fortuitously cast by the winds, patted down, and
built up into a series of superimposed layers. Shells, both
marine and terrestrial, have been caught up in the drifts, for
we find them now embedded in the rock, and scattered over the
most remote corners of the island group. I picked up a fairly
large fragment of coral at an elevation of probably not
less than 150 feet; and, doubtless, other equally large fragments
occur at still greater heights. In regions where freshwater
streams abound, the materials of terrestrial destruction are
washed into these streams, and by them carried into the sea;
geologists have long since recognized the force of the say-
ing: “the land-surface is on one grand march to the sea.”
But here, where freshwater streams are entirely wanting, and
the falling drops are immediately absorbed into the porous
soil, the conditions are at least in one sense reversed—the
march is in a direction away from the sea. Whither it may
ultimately tend cannot be foretold.
It is difficult to conceive that these lovely hills, buried beneath
their sombre covering of juniper and sage (Lantana), should
have been thus shaped by tlie wind; but the facts are plain in
their statement, and leave no loop-hole for the doubting
mind. The height of the sand-hills, or dunes, for such they
really are, is unusually great for a coral island, and serves to
ROYAL PALMS, PEMBROKE HALL.
PHYSICAL HISTORY AND GEOLOGY. 33
distinguish the Bermudas from other islands having an ap-
parently related structure. I fully concur in the suggestion
thrown out by Prof. Rice that these accumulations could only
have been formed at a time when large areas of reef, and not
a simple atoll-ring, were exposed above water-level. At
the present day nearly all the sand is formed through the de-
struction of the existing land-mass, and not as a product of
disintegration derived from the growing reef.
Prof. Rice, in his interesting observations on the geology of
Bermuda (loc. cit., pp. 10-13), correctly distinguishes a “ beach ”
rock as underlying in many places the drift rock of the shores.
He instances as examples of such rock the fossiliferous stratum
which appears in the chain of islands stretching across Hamil-
ton Harbor, the conglomerate of Stock’s Point, near St.
George’s, which rises some twelve feet above the water, the
lower bed of Devonshire Bay, and much of the basal, nearly
horizontal, strata which appear on the south shore. As char-
acteristic of this beach rock, it is said that the beds nearly uni-
formly dip seaward, but at a very moderate angle, and that
they contain largely of the remains of marine animals (corals
and shells). The rock is in most cases very tough and hard,
and is largely the correspondent of the base-rock that has
already been described.
We also found this beach-rock well developed at many
points along the south shore, where it rises some 5-8 feet, or
exceptionally more, above the sea-level. The series of nearly
horizontal ledges, sharply defined by their position from the
highly inclined layers of drift-rock by which they are sur-
mounted, or into which they graduate landward, which appear
basally at the Chequer Board and at Harris’s Bay well illus-
trate the characteristics of the rock. I failed however, to de-
tect the uniform seaward slope of this rock which Prof. Rice
indicates, nor could I satisfy myself that the presence of
marine organic remains in a rock were conclusive for consider-
ing the rock to be of beach formation, unless, indeed, sueh re-
mains were abundant, or else showed by their positions that
‘
34 THE BERMUDA ISLANDS.
they could only have been placed there through the normal
manner of oceanic deposition. It is true that in by far the
greater number of cases the rock that can be identified as of
beach formation contains, when remains are present at all,
only the relicts of marine organisms, and that the drift-rock
above or back of it contains only the parts of land mollusks.
But Prof. Rice justly remarks that the remains of land organ-
isms can be readily washed or drifted into the sea, and there
combined with the organisms that are subsequently to enter
into the formation of a beach-rock. A mixed faunal element
would thus be introduced. But much the same kind of inter-
mixture may take place in the land-deposits through the
washing or sweeping on high of marine organisms, or their
fragments, especially during periods of high storm. Prof.
Rice recognizes the possibility of such intermixture, but he at-
tributes it all to the action of the wind. It is claimed that
only small or light fragments can be swept up by it, and that
‘necessarily only these can be found, under ordinary condi-
tions, drifted into the rock. A fragment of the shell of
Spondylus weighing 1.8 grammes, a valve of Chama, in-
crusted with tubes of serpula, weighing 2.7 grammes, and a
fragment of Mycedium, weighing 8.3 grammes, were found
by that investigator in the sand-drifts of Tucker’s Town, and
these weights or masses are given as values of the carrying
power of the wind. This, it appears to me, is doing scant jus-
tice to the assistance which the wind receives from the sea.
Under ordinary conditions the action of the sea may be
confined almost wholly to the line of beach, but it certainly
is otherwise during storms. At such times there can be no
question that much in the way of organic remains is thrown
far within the domain of the drift-rock. The hurling of
pebbles and stones along exposed coast-lines is sufficient evi-
dence of the capabilities in this direction. We were given
graphic accounts of the violence of the waters under excep-
tional conditions of storm, and were shown, in the house of
the Misses Peniston, at Peniston’s, a position reached by
PHYSICAL HISTORY AND GEOLOGY. 35
volumes of spray which we should have believed impossible,
were it not for the absolute reliability of the residents of the
house who volunteered the information.
At several points more particularly along the north shore I
found marine shells (Lucina, Tellina, etc.) imbedded in unques-
tionable drift-rock, and, indeed, it could hardly have been ex-
pected that such association should not occur. On the whole,
however, these remains were not as abundant as one might
have expected to find them. The same is also true in a
measure of the occurrence of land-snails. One of the com-
monest shells of the lower drift-rock is the large Turbo (Livona)
pica, a shell which appears to be very abundant about the coast,
but which generally, and perhaps invariably, is cast up with-
out the animal. I was unable to find anyone among the local
collectors who had seen the animal itself, nor did any member
of our party succeed in obtaining an occupied shell. Nelson
and Rice both attribute the occurrence of this shell in the
drift-rock to transportation by hermit-crabs. I can hardly be-
lieve that this is the full explanation. I failed to find any of
the shells of the beach inhabited by hermits, and was in this
respect less fortunate than Nelson, nor do I know of any her-
wit of the islands which would be likely to carry about with
it the massive full-grown shell. However, my testimony on
this point is purely negative.
J admit with Prof. Rice that it is frequently difficult
to distinguish between what is assumed to be beach-rock and
the regular drift-rock of the islands, especially when the latter
occupies a basal and nearly horizontal position. In many
places along the south shore where the beach-rock is exposed
in heavy beds it occupies but a limited horizontal space, being
succeeded by highly inclined drift-rock, which descends to the
water-level. This succession is unexpected, and might lead
one to infer that there have been local differential movements
on the part of the land. But of course this need not have been,
and doubtless was not, the case, since an irregular or indented
shore-line undergoing elevation would form features similar
36 THE BERMUDA ISLANDS.
substantially to those which are here presented. That is to say,
the raised beach-line would be an interrupted one—continuous
possibly along an inner contour, but broken on the outer face,
where a low-level beach would mark that portion of the*shore
which had last risen. In this way, it is not improbable that
much of the interior drifts of the Bermudas will be found to
be underlaid by elevated beach-rock, and that a continuity of
extent actually exists. It appears to me that geologists have
not taken sufficient account of the irregularities in an ascending
coast line as factors determining the positions or relative al-
titudes to which points of elevation must necessarily attain.
They are too ready to interpret the obliquity or inclined posi-
tion of marine terraces on the assumption of terrestrial oscilla-
tions.
The one fact above all others which immediately appeals to
the geologist in the Bermudas is the rapid waste which the
islands are undergoing and have undergone for some long
past period. Everywhere along the coast we have evidences
of this waste; the outer cliffs, the cliffs and ledges of the inner
waters, the serially disposed islands and islets, all bear witness
to a common annihilating process. Along the south shore the
lesson of destruction is presented on the most impressive scale,
and it is here that we read most clearly the record of waste
which the islands have undergone. The huge cliffs are still
being undermined and are still crumbling, but they are merely
the remains of a land-mass that at one time projected far be-
yond the present coast-line into the sea. Thisis clearly shown
by the disposition of the drift-rock of which they are composed,
the layers of which in most places decline steeply in the direc-
tion of the land, turning their basset edges to the sea.
Manifestly, the cliffs are merely the inner halves of dunes, the
outer slopes of which have been carried away by the sea. The
height of the cliffs indicates dunes of great extent, but it will
probably never be told at what point in what is now sea they
originated, and how much they have lost through oceanic ero-
sion. Not improbably the land at one time projected at least
as far southward as the position which is now occupied by the
crest of the reef.
PHYSICAL HISTORY AND GEOLOGY. 37
There can be no doubt, it appears to me, as Rein* first clearly
demonstrated, that Harrington Sound is not the lagoon of a
marginal or secondary atoll, but merely a hole that has been
cut out of the land by the sea. I think that every one who
has seen the working condition of the water in the Sound, the
undercut ledges, the scattered islands and rocks, and above
all, the precipitous cliffs, which appear on opposite sides of the
water, and show an arrangement of lamination or stratifica-
tion similar to that which is observed in the cut cliffs of the
south shore, must arrive at the same conclusion. The same
is manifestly also true of much, if not the greater part, of Cas-
tle Harbor, which still retains a sea-ward border in the belt
of disrupted land which forms Castle Point, and Castle, Goat,
Nonsuch, and Cooper’s Islands. The widening or expansion
of this body of water presents itself vividly to the eye of the
observer stationed on an eminence, such as that of St. David,
whence the field of vision takes in the patches of separating
and separated land which are awaiting the hour of their
destruction.
Along the borders of Castle Harbor—at least as far. as we
observed it on the west and south—there is a broad flat ledge,
over which the depth of water is only from about six to ten
feet; beyond this there is an abrupt drop into the deeper parts
of the lagoon. This feature is frequently found in the true
atoll-lagoons, where it forms a shore platform similar to that
which is formed around the outer surfaces of sea-cliffs. In
how far this ledge may represent a simple coral outgrowth
from the shore, or determine a measure of subsidence, can-
not well be ascertained. Large numbers of giant brain-corals
(Meeandrina and Diploria), measuring three, four, and five
feet in diameter, are scattered over it, and form a series of
stepping stones in the water. Many of them grow on and
over the edge of the platform, so that the latter overhangs in
some places. These corals appear to be absent, or at least
* Bericht Senckenberg. Naturf. Gesellsch., 1870, p. 153.
38 THE BERMUDA ISLANDS.
largely wanting, in the deeper waters. We sounded at various
points in 5-6 fathoms, and whether this represents a general
depth or not, it is certain that the basin is far shallower than
that of Harrington Sound.
In the pinnacles of the North Rock we have probably the
most imposing lesson touching upon the annihilation of the
land-mass. The lower portion of these rocks is, I believe, un-
questionably of beach formation; I failed to detect in it the
fossils (Cypreeas, etc.) which Rein asserts are to be found there,
but possibly my search was not sufficiently systematic to bring
them to light. This basal portion of the rock is exceedingly
tough and compact, and rings loudly when struck with a ham-
mer. The upper moiety is made up of distinctly laminated or
stratified drift-rock, which dips at a steep angle. Manifestly,
the materials of this ceolian formation must have had some
starting ground, and could not have been developed from the
small area which is exposed at low water about the base of the
pinnacles: The height to which the well-indurated drift at-
tains, some twelve feet or more, taken in conjunction with the
vertical reduction which the rock must necessarily have under-
gone, and the destruction which has ensued elsewhere, argues
almost overwhelmingly for considering these fragments to be
merely the remains of a land-mass which had at one time very
considerable extent, and not improbably actually united with
the main islands. The work of destruction, according to this
interpretation, may have wiped from existence a piece of terri-
tory possibly not inferior in area to that which is now exposed
above water.
In view of the rapid destruction which the islands are under-
going it remains to inquire what are or were the special condi-
tions which have permitted this destruction |to take place, and
have so completely reversed the history of the archipelago.
For evidently the conditions under which the islands were
first built up, and which permitted them to acquire their full
development, must have been very different from those which
PHYSICAL HISTORY AND GEOLOGY. 39
are to-day bringing about only annihilation. In order to trace
these changes it is first necessary to determine in how far the
present outline or area of the Bermudas is a permanent one, or
in how far it may have varied during the period of its exist-
ence. By geologists, generally, the island group is considered
to represent the disrupted parts of an atoll-ring, most of which
(as is seen in the northern reef) now lies submerged beneath
the water. This is the view which is upheld by Dana in his
“Corals and Coral Islands” (p. 218) and by the late Sir
Wyville Thomson in his work on “The Atlantic.” The latter
states* that the character of the Bermuda atoll “is much the
same as that of like reefs in the Pacific, with certain peculiari-
ties depending upon the circumstance that it is the coral
island farthest from the equator, almost on the limit of the
region of reef-building corals.” ‘The atoll character of the
island group is also conceded by Prof. Rice, but this authority
carefully distinguishes between the present outlines and
those which belonged to the original atoll; he recognizes
movements of elevation and subsidence, which have practically
obliterated the normal form of the atoll, and have left it in a con-
dition where there need be no necessary correspondence exist-
ing between the present land-masses, with the submerged
reef, and the primary atoll-ring. The condition is thus stated
by him: “The series of movements required to account for
the main features of Bermudian geology seems to be the
following: 1. A subsidence, in which the original nucleus of
the islands disappeared beneath the sea, the characteristic atoll
form was produced, and the now elevated beach-rock was de-
posited. 2. An elevation, in which the great lagoon and the
various minor lagoons were converted into dry land, and the
vast accumulations of wind-blown sand were formed, which
now constitute the most striking peculiarity of the islands. 3.
A subsidence, in which the soft drift-rock around the shores
suffered extensive marine erosion, and the shore platform and
*Op. cit., I, p. 802.
40 THE BERMUDA ISLANDS.
cliffs already described were formed.' With this conception
the atoll practically disappears, since, in the absence of atoll
characters, there is nothing to indicate that the structure was
ever present; at any rate, its existence is rendered purely
hypothetical.
Darwin discusses the subject with his usual perspicuity, and
finds reason to doubt that the islands are a true atoll. He
points out their close general resemblance to an atoll, but in-
dicates the following important differences: “ first, in the mar-
gin of the reef not forming a flat, solid surface, laid bare at
low water, and regularly bounding the internal space of shal-
low water or lagoon; secondly, in the ‘border of gradually
shoaling water, nearly a mile and a half in width, which sur-
rounds the entire outside of the reef; and thirdly, in the size,
height, and extraordinary form of the islands, which present
little resemblance to the long, narrow, simple islets, seldom ex-
ceeding half a mile in breadth, which surmount the annular
reefs of almost all the atolls in the Indian and Pacific oceans.”
The great height of the land, as compared with other islands,
is also commented upon.? |
In all these characters the Bermudas unquestionably dif-
fer from a typical atoll, but allowing for the conditions which
Prof. Rice suggests these differences lose much of their signifi-
cance. They are not antagonistic to the notion of an overdone
atoll which is now undergoing destruction. But it is difficult,
if not impossible, to demonstrate the atoll condition itself.
If itever existed it has been completely masked by overgrowth,
for I believe the facts such as they are show with sufficient
clearness that the present islands and reefs have little or noth-
ing in common, beyond occupying position, with a pre-existent
ring. Matthew Jones has well argued’ that a bodily uplift of
1 Geol. of Bermuda. Bull. U. S. National Museum, No. 25, pp. 16-17.
2 Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs, 1842, p. 204.
3 Nature, Aug. 1, 1872.
PHYSICAL HISTORY AND GEOLOGY. 41
some 50 or 60 feet would lay dry practically the whole archi-
pelago, as far as the great northern reef. That such a condi-
tion of elevation at one time existed is, I believe, all but de-
monstrable; and if this is true the present condition can only
be accounted for on one or two hypotheses: simple erosion or
erosion in combination with subsidence. The vast amount of
erosion that has taken place has already been referred to, and
it is barely necessary to enter further into its details. It will
immediately suggest itself to the inquiring mind that this ero-
sion could not well have taken place without subsidence, other-
wise it would be difficult to conceive, except under a condition
of very rapid elevation, how material could have initially ac-
cumulated, so as to'lend itself to.destruction afterward. To
assume rapid elevation, followed by a period of stability when
destruction would exceed construction, requires the formula-
tion of causes which are not less difficult to receive than those
which would explain subsidence. Unquestionable evidences of
subsidence are, however, by no means wanting, and coincident-
ally they point to an amount of movement which would account
approximately for the depth of the great lagoon. Thus, in the
excavations made on Ireland Island for the lodgement of the
great floating dock, a deposit of peat,* and vegetable soil contain -
ing stumps of cedar in a vertical position, together with other
vegetable remains, and shells of the common sub-fossil land-
- snail of the islands, were found at a depth beneath the water
of some 45 to 50 feet. The depth of the peat-bog which occu-
pies the central part of Main Island, has already been noticed.
It seems to be a not uncommon occurrence, as we were in-
formed by the keeper of the light at St. David’s, that stumps
and roots of cedars are drawn up by the anchor chains of ves-
sels riding in the waters about St. George’s.
The caves of Bermuda afford equally conclusive evidence of
subsidence. Many of these now occupy a level considerably
below that of the sea, and consequently receive a large in-
*Thomson: ‘The Atlantic,” I, p. 320.
42 THE BERMUDA ISLANDS.
draught of water from that source. In the very beautiful Island
Cave, near Joyce’s Dock, on the north shore, the interior pool
has a depth of probably upwards of twenty feet-—we were in-
formed that it was thirty feet—yet through it rose a ponderous
stalagmite, several feet in thickness. Manifestly, this stalag-
mite could only have been formed when the pool was not yet
existent or at a time when the floor of the cave was elevated
above sea-level. The depth of the pool, then, is a measure of
the least possible amount of subsidence, from 20 to 30 feet in
the present instance. Much the same condition is presented
by some of the other caves. These sea-grottoes are among the
most attractive features of the Bermudas, and they would,
even in regions far famed -for their caves, attract attention.
The principal vaults are of fairly large size, but the connect-
ing passages are low and contracted, rendering deep penetra-
tion difficult.
These various forms of evidence make clear that there has
not only been subsidence, but subsidence on a moderately
large scale, and in a comparatively recent (geologically speak-
ing) period. Indeed, were we to search for evidence of sub-
sidence alone we would not be compelled to go beyond the
simple drift-rock, which at so many points dips directly into
the sea. To what amount this subsidence may have extended
. cannot in the nature of things be determined, but it appears
to have been at least sufficient to account for the depth of
water which marks the lagoon and inner sounds. Before this
subsidence took place probably the entire area now covered by
the Bermudian archipelago, and much more, were dry land,
and it was at this time, doubtless, that the great sand dunes
were elevated. The prevalence of powerful winds on the south
side would tend to elevate this side of the island, while the
opposite side, not feeling this influence in any marked degree,
would remain comparatively low and flat. In a period of sub-
sidence the low side would naturally be the first to succumb
to the waters, and would undergo submergence long before
the elevated slopes. And this is precisely what appears to have
taken place in the Bermudas.
PHYSICAL HISTORY AND GEOLOGY. 43
It becomes an interesting question to ascertain how far
elevated above water-line the Bermudas were at the time when
they formed a continuous island. The data that are presented
for the determination of this problem are mainly of a negative
character. But if a subsidence of some 50 or 60 feet can be
indicated, and we still have beach-rock on the islands at an
elevation of some 12-16 feet, it will be necessarily assumed
that the actual uplift above sea-level was at least 60 or 70 feet,
unless, indeed, the movement was not a uniform or coincident
one for the entire island group. This last assumption seems,
however, highly improbable. It may, again, be assumed that
the elevated beach-rock was lifted since the period of sub-
sidence, and represents the closing movement of the land.
Its presence therefore need not argue for elevation beyond that
which is indicated by its own highest level, some twelve or
fifteen feet. But the relation of this rock to the drift-rock
overlying it, and the fact that the latter in so many places
drops bodily into the sea, forbid such a conception. The
beach-rock is manifestly old, and long antedates the last sub-
sidence; and for anything that can be shown to the contrary,
it is at least as ancient as the lagoons and sounds, and probably
much more ancient. Indeed, there is nothing that could lead
one to suppose that it is not the original rock which was
formed when the island first came to the surface. Although
now exposed on the sea-border, it is really an interior rock, as
is proved by the broad band of land which must have been
removed from the seaward side of the existing cliffs.
Two questions present themselves at this stage of the inquiry.
One of these has been much used of late by the opponents of
the Darwinian theory of coral formations, and bears upon the
formation of lagoons through aqueous solution. The second
considers the amount to which a possibly cavernous condition
of the island may have facilitated the work of the erosion, and
permitted of the present features having been formed without
the aid of subsidence.
44 THE BERMUDA ISLANDS.
No one, it appears to me, who has examined any of the in-
ner waters of the archipelago can for a moment suppose that
the basins holding these waters could have been formed or
kept open through solution of the rock supports. Apart from
the special difficulties which the Murray theory carries with it,
and which will be found more extensively discussed in the
general chapter treating of the formation of coral structures,
the facts presented by the Bermudas are such as to im-
mediately dispose of the theory in so far as it is made applica-
ble to them. ‘The material resulting from rock degradation
which finds its way into the waters of the different lagoons
vastly exceeds in quantity that which could possibly be re-
moved through solution; hence we have the entire floor
covered with a thick deposit of ooze, as our dredgings invaria-
bly proved, and not an exposure of bare rock as we should ex-
pect to find in a basin of solution. Organic material, largely
foraminiferal, is also accumulating over the floor, and the sup- .
ply of formative material from this source alone is probably
fully equal to that which is removed chemically by the waters.
The quantity of this basal sediment is so great that during a
heavy storm, as was witnessed by Rein and others, the entire
water reaching to the outer reef was rendered milky white. As
regards the second question, the influence of a cavernous struct-
ure upon the erosion of the land, the facts are not readily ap-
proached. Mr. Fewkes, in a paper recently published* on the
“Origin of the Present Form of the Bermudas,” argues that
the existing relations of the archipelago are not necessarily
the result of subsidence (although he admits that the evidences
of subsidence are unmistakable), but of normal erosion, assisted
by the breakages which in one form or another are likely to
follow the honeycombing of the rock. Caves or long passages
are assumed to penetrate into all parts of the islands, and by
their collapse are supposed to furnish the hollows which ulti-
mately form the lagoon-basin. This idea is not entirely new,
and was already entertained by Rein.
*Proc. Boston Soc, Natural History, 1888, pp. 518 e¢ seg.
PHYSICAL HISTORY AND GEOLOGY. 45
A number of serious objections present themselves to the
acceptance of this explanation. The premises are largely, if
not almost wholly, of a hypothetical character. That the
islands are in a measure undermined there can be no doubt,
but there is little, if anything, to show that there have been
breakages of the extent which would be required by the
theory. Evidences of local disruption are plentiful, such as
may be found in almost every region of sinks, but as far as I
can see there is nothing to indicate that basins such as Har-
rington Sound, Castle Harbor, or the great lagoon could have
been formed, or even materially furthered, by disturbances
such as the cave-theory calls into existence. The even floors
of these basins argue strongly against formation through
breakage, as does likewise the horizontality of the beach-rock
formation. The absence of all indications of disturbance
from the latter is significant. But the broader question can
well be asked: How could extensive cave formations, extending
40, 60, or 70 feet beneath the water surface, be brought about
without subsidence? Whence would the force of excavation be
obtained? The answer might be returned: solution. But
there is no more reason to assume special solution in the case
of the Bermudas or in other coral islands than in any marine
limestone formation.
The difficulty in the problem entirely disappears if we admit
subsidence, and, as has already been seen, the positive evidences
of subsidence are ample. On no other theory, it appears to
me, can the waste of the cliffs on the south shore be explained.
The direct evidences of subsidence, moreover, do not come
from a single point in the archipelago; they are found from
Ireland Island and Hamilton Sound, through the Main
Island, to St. George’s. And this being the case, there is every
reason to assume that the area which was influenced by move-
ments of one kind or another was not restricted to the present
patches of exposed land, but extended to the submerged por-
tions of the archipelago as well.
46 THE BERMUDA ISLANDS.
As the result of our researches we may express the follow-
ing conclusions:
1. The present form of the Bermuda Islands bears no relation
to the ring of an atoll, except in so far as the outer boundary
may be more or less coincident with the boundaries of an
ancient atoll.
2. The existence of an atoll in the present position of the Ber-
mudas is not demonstrable.
3. The height of land in the archipelago was formed during
a period of elevation, when seemingly the entire archipelago
was a connected or continuous piece of land, extending as an
oval island to what is now the bounding reef on the north
and on the south. It is impossible to determine the absolute
amount of elevation above the water, but it appears to have
been not less than 70 or 80 feet, and it may have been con-
siderably more.
4, The lagoons and sounds were formed duringa period of sub-
sidence which followed upon that of elevation, and is seemingly
still in progress, or was so until a comparatively recent period.
The great degradation of the coast-lime took place at this time.
It is impossible to determine the amount of such subsidence,
but it was at least 60-70 feet, and not improbably very much
more.
It will be seen that these results, so fur as they go, are in ab-
solute harmony with the views which Mr. Darwin entertained
regarding the structure of these islands. They do not prove
the correctness of the Darwinian hypothesis of the formation
of coral islands, but they measurably sustain it; on the con-
trary, they are largely opposed to the requirements of the sub-
stitute theory which has been recently proposed. Elevation
and subsidence are both shown to have marked the region in
its development, and these conditions are more in consonance
with the Darwinian hypothesis than with any other.
PHYSICAL HISTORY AND GEOLOGY. 47
The question as to what form of coral structure the Bermu-
das actually are—what constitutes their fundament, and how
they were built to their existing level—still remains un-
answered, and possibly we,may never be able to answer. But
I have thought it worth while to introduce a discussion of the
general coral question (the chapter following), as it has a bear-
ing on the topic at issue.
IV.
THE CORAL-REEF PROBLEM.
Perhaps no class of phenomena has been so frequently ap-
pealed to in evidence of subsidence on a grand scale as that
presented in the formation of coral reefs. Scattered freely over
a large expanse of the oceanic surface, these structures consti-
tute features there as distinctive and prominent as do the
mountain masses on the continents. Rising in most cases
from a deep sea, and with a limited extent, their presence, as
organic accumulations, immediately suggests peculiarities of
geological construction which are to be found in no other
form of relief. It is an ascertained fact, as has been variously
demonstrated that the conditions governing the existence and
distribution of reef-building corals (Porites, Diploria, Mean-
drina, Madrepora, Tubipora, Fungia, Astreea, etc.) are drawn
within narrow limits, and that they are equally of a general
and of a special character. Broadly stated these conditions
are: A surface temperature of the water never falling below
70° or 68° F.; an absence of muddy sediment ; freedom from
contact with freshwaters; the necessity, in some cases, of surf
action. Accordingly, we find that reef-structures are practi-
cally confined to the warm tropical or subtropical seas, and
that they are largely wanting in tracts where exceptional cold
currents have wedged a path into the warmer waters, or where,
as at the mouths of outflowing streams, there is a free dis-
charge of both freshwater and sediment. ‘lo this must be ad-
ded the all-important fact that the reef-building corals are con-
fined to a superficial zone of the sea not exceeding 100 or 120
THE CORAL-REEF PROBLEM. 49
feet ; beyond this depth we meet only with dead coral. In
the case of the Bermudas, and in that of a few other reefs,
the temperature of the water has heen known to descend to 66°
or even 64° F., but this condition is very exceptional.
One of the most familiar and wide-spread types of coral
structure is the atoll, which acquires special development in
the waters of the Pacific and Indian oceans. It consists of a
more or less irregular ring of living and dead coral, enclosing
within its boundaries an internal body of water (lagoon), which
in many cases is kept in direct communication with the ex-
terior by one or more connecting channels of water; the breaks
in the ring corresponding to these passages almost invariably
occur on the leeward side of the island. The atoll, although
frequently so described, is rarely of a circular form, the outline
being very generally elongated and angular. In extent it
varies from two to three miles, or less,in length to upwards of
40 or 50 miles; where the dimensions are very small the lagoon
may be completely absent, or merely indicated by a dry de-
pression. The breadth of the coral ring itself does not usually
exceed 1000-1500 feet, or somewhat more than a quarter of a
mile. In the general composition of an atoll, the following
parts may be recognized : first, an outer platform of coral-rock,
more or less exposed at low water, which is the correspondent
of the ordinary rock platforms resulting from tidal destruction ;
secondly, the beach-line proper, measuring a few feet in height,
and consisting of coral sand, calcareous pebbles, and triturated
shells; and thirdly, the exposed ring itself with the width as
above stated, over which, more especially on the windward side,
a luxuriant vegetable growth is developed. The elevation of.
this portion of the atoll more commonly does not exceed 10-20
feet, although exceptionally the wind-swept dunes of coral sand
attain a much greater height. On some islands, not necessarily
atolls, however, as Anegada, one of the West Indies, the drift
banks rise to a height of 40 feet, while on the Bermudas they
considerably exceed 200 feet, reaching at one point, Sears’
Hill, 260 feet.
50 THE BERMUDA ISLANDS.
On the lagoon side of the ring the shore-platform is very
commonly replaced by a gently sloping sand bottom, with or
without the formation of a true beach area. Frequently there
juts out from the shore a growing reef-platform (upon which
the coral growth is fairly profuse), which descends with a
vertical or overhanging edge to a second deeper zone of coral
life. Over the bottom, which presents a more or less uniform
character, coral sand and debris, calcareous pebbles, the tests
of various Foraminifera, etc., are extensively distributed, form-
ing there a sticky white or bluish paste, much like that which
extends for miles beyond the outer border of the forming reef.
The depth of the lagoons varies from a few feet to twenty or
thirty fathoms, as we find it in many island groups of the
Pacific (Paumotu, Gilbert’s Group, Keeling Island, ete.). In
the Maldives it exceptionally attains 50 and 60 fathoms.
As reef-building corals cannot long survive exposure to the
atmosphere it is manifest that the upper limit of the growing
mass will be the actual surface of low-water. In the line of
the breakers, or in the shallows just beyond, the coral polyps
thrive in their greatest profusion, and the almost end-
less variety of their forms, not less than their brilliant color-
ing, never fails to arouse the wonder and enthusiasm of the
traveler. Prof. Dana thus graphically describes the forming
island: “The reef of the coral atoll, as it lies at the surface
still uncovered with vegetation, is a platform of coral rock,
usually two to four hundred yards wide, and situated so low
as to be swept by waves at high tide. The outer edge, directly
exposed to the surf, is generally broken into points and jagged
inderitations, along which the waters of the resurging wave
drive with great force. Though in the midst of the breakers,
the edge stands a few inches, and sometimes a foot, above
other parts of the platform; the incrusting nullipores cover it
with varied tints, and afford protection from the abrading
action of the waves. There are usually three to five futhoms
water near the margin; and below, over the bottom, which
gradually deepens outward, beds of coral are growing pro-
THE CORAL-REEF PROBLEM. 51
fusely among extensive patches of coral sand and fragments.
Generally the barren areas much exceed those flourishing with
zoophytes, and not infrequently the clusters are scattered like
tufts of vegetation in a sandy plain. The growing corals ex-
tend up the sloping edge of the reef, nearly to low-tide level.
For ten to twenty yards from the margin, the reef is usually
very cavernous or pierced with holes or sinuous recesses, a hid-
ing place for crabs and shrimps, or a retreat for the Echini,
Asterias, sea-aneniones, and mollusks. * * * Further in are
occasional pools and basins, alive with all that lives in these
strange coral seas.”
This description, which is drawn from the islands of the
Pacific, is largely applicable to the condition of the Bermudas.
Owing to the peculiar submerged condition of the reef I was
unable to determine satisfactorily to what extent a breaking
surf was favorable or unfavorable to the growth of corals. At
the North Rock, the only accessible point of the outer reef, the
millepore growth is very profuse, and large masses of Porites
may be picked out from below the capping of serpula. The
same condition prevails over the Devonshire Flatts, where the
surf dashes over a wilderness of atoll-like islets scattered
through the lagoon. But this is not necessarily evidence in
favor of advantage derived from the surf, since these seemingly
more favored patches are the creators of the surf themselves,
and they must have risen before assistance from this direction
could have been given them. Their existence seems to prove,
however, that the action of the surf is no disadvantage, a con-
clusion opposed to that which was reached by Bourne from
his careful studies of the Diego Garcia Reef.* Along the
inner slope of the reef, immediately receding from what might
be called the crest, as well as on both slopes of the serpula-
capped southern reef, the coral growth appears in unbounded
profusion, presenting a perfect maze of millepores, gorgonias,
and brain-stones.
*Proc. Royal Society, XLIII, 1888, pp. 453-55.
52 THE BERMUDA ISLANDS.
There is little or no growth of coral immediately along the
south shore, doubtless due to the great quantity of sediment
that is constantly being washed off from the cliffs. The rocks
of Harrington Sound, on the other hand, are largely fringed
with patches of Isophyllia, Siderastraea, and Millepora, while
in the deep quieter’ waters, judging from the number of our
hauls, Oculina is by no means scarce. Reference has already
been made to the vast development of Diploria and Mzan-
drina on the projecting platform of Castle Harbor, over which
the water is normally in a condition of fair stability. This
condition confirms the view expressed by Bourne that the
coral growth of the inner waters is much more extensive than
is generally stated to be the case. A very large part, however,
if, indeed, not the greater part, of the floor of the big lagoon
is practically barren.
Although the zone of animal activity in a coral island ceases
with the water-line, the actual growth of the island does not stop
there, but is continued upward by the mechanical and vegeta-
ble forces. The destructive action of the billows carries frag-
ments of coral-rock far above the limits of coralline existence,
triturating the masses-‘into minute surfaces, and upon this im-
provised soil a luxurious vegetation, whose origin lies in the
seeds wafted thither by the winds, or deposited by birds, may
in course of time spring up. Where the action of the breakers
is greatest the coral rock assumes the greatest compactness,
since the fragments and particles that are derived from the
mechanical wear and tear are here firmly lodged or compacted
into the spaces of the otherwise comparatively loose coral
structure. On the oceanic side of the island we find shallow
water—ranging to several hundred feet—for a distance of
between 300 to 1500 feet, beyond which the descent becomes
rapid, dropping suddenly to several thousand feet. At a dis-
tance of less than three-quarters of a mile from the Island of
Clermont Tonnerre, tle lead was run out to a depth of 3,600
feet, and yet no bottom was found; at a distance of seven miles
a run of 6,000 feet failed to strike bottom. Off the Cardoo
THE CORAL-REEF PROBLEM. 53
atoll soundings made at a distance of 60 yards from the coast
failed to detect bottom at a depth of 1200 feet, and 500 feet
out from Whitsunday Island no bottom was found by Beechey
at a depth of 1500 feet. Captain Fitzroy found that at a dis-
tance of 6,600 feet from the Keeling Island shores the lead
did not strike bottom even after having been run out to a
length of 7,200 feet. Seven miles to the north-west of the Ber-
muda reef, as has already been seen, the depth of water is
2,100 fathoms, but the coast shallows for a considerable dis-
tance around the islands. It would thus appear that the
pitch of the coral island beneath the ocean is ata very steep
angle, sometimes considerably exceeding 45 degrees. Indeed,
there are some grounds for concluding that in the deeper
parts the faces are nearly vertical, rising like gigantic walls
from the oceanic abysses.
In view of the peculiar conditions attending coral growth—
the limitation of depth to 100 or 120 feet—the difficulty of ac-
counting for the occurrence of coral structures in some of the
deepest parts of the sea at once becomes apparent. It had, in-
deed, been assumed that coral islands merely occupied the sum-
mits of submerged volcanoes, and that their distribution over
the deep-sea was simply an indication of the existence, in the
region in question, of an equal number of buried volcanic
peaks or mountain backs. Recent researches have, however,
failed in the majority of cases to detect the presence of such
hypothetical buttresses rising to within a few feet of the sur-
face, but, on the contrary, tend to show that at least in some
instances the actual coral portion of the island descends of
itself hundreds, if not thousands, of feet into the ocean.
The genius of the late Mr. Darwin has furnished a theoretical
explanation of the phenomenon which, even if it cannot be
held to be proved or conclusive, has at least the merit of a
strong probability in its favor, and of being in consonance
with well-determined geological facts and conditions. This
“subsidence” theory, which until recently received the almost
unanimous support of geologists, is based upon the evidence of
54 THE BERMUDA ISLANDS.
extensive terrestrial movements, and presupposes the existence
of numerous land-masses rising from the deepest water. Around
these, under favorable conditions, reef-building and other corals
would flourish in abundance, the submerged cone affording a
suitable base for the development of the coral animal. The
external margin of the coral barrier or buttress, which may be
assumed to grow from a possible depth of 120 feet, owing to the
invigorating action of the beating surf, and an increased food-
supply, would probably rise more rapidly than the inner parts,
-whose development would also in a measure be checked by the
out-pouring of detrital sediment. A shelving inwardly-slop-
ing collar or bank, having a land-nucleus in its center, would
thus be produced. In the ring thus forming, whose outer mar-
gin, through the breaking and heaping action of the sea, would
be lifted somewhat above the general water-level, we have the
skeleton of the future atoll. We may now distinguish three
elements in its construction: the outer ring or collar of coral,
the central nucleus of land, and the encircling body of water
which separates the two. —
If at this stage of its formation we conceive the enclosed
island to undergo a slow and gradual subsidence the following
phenomena may beassumed to present themselves. The outer
border of the reef would slowly but steadily build itself up to the
level of the water, the growth of the coral colony keeping pace
with the gradual sinking of its substratum, provided this be not
too rapid. The parts sinking below the line of 120 feet would die
out, and their future purpose would be merely to afford a base
for the super-structure. The island portion, on the contrary,
would sink deeper and deeper, until eventually it might com-
pletely disappear. We would then have an outer barrier and
an inner lagoon, with probably one or more communicating
passages between the latter and the sea cut through the coral
growth. ‘This is the typical atoll.
When a reef is separated by a considerable body of water
from the adjoining land it is termed a “ barrier” reef, of which
two distinct types, the “encircling” and the “linear” barrier
THE CORAL-REEF PROBLEM. 55
reef, are recognized. An encircling barrier reef differs mainly
from an atoll in that the assumed subsidence has not been suf-
ficient to completely bury the enclosed island, leaving con-
sequently, no internal sea, but merely a separating channel
‘formed within the coral boundary. By further subsidence, it
is conceived, the encircling reef would be converted into an
atoll. When a coral boundary extends for a great distance in
a more or less linear direction it is termed a linear reef, or
“barrier” reef proper. The great barrier reef off the island of
New Caledonia extends in a N. W. and S. E. direction for a dis-
tance of upwards of 400 miles, and that of the northeastern
coast of Australia has a linear extension, with interruptions of
more than 1000 miles. In the case of the latter the width of
the intervening strait is in many places between 50 and 60
miles, with a depth of water reaching 350 feet. The reef
patches, themselves, even in their broader parts, rarely exceed
one or two miles in width.
Besides the three forms of coral structure—atolls, encircling
and barrier reefs—which have been assumed to give un-
equivocal evidence of subsidence, there is still a fourth type,
that of the so-called “fringing” reef, which has generally been
considered to afford proof either of terrestrial stability or of
actualelevation. These fringing reefs hug the immediate shore
line, and may, indeed, be said to represent the incipient stage
or starting point whence the other forms of reefs were developed ;
by slow subsidence a fringing reef would, on the Darwinian
hypothesis, be converted into a barrier reef. F ringing reefs are
frequently continued as a series of superimposed terraces
above the dry land,—an unequivocal proof of elevation. They
rarely, if ever, descend in the water to depths much exceeding
120 feet, and, as might be naturally supposed from their man-
ner of formation, are but rarely associated with the other forms
of coral reefs.
Applying the Darwinian hypothesis of subsidence to the
phenomena of coral structures generally, we may deduce the
following: A region of atolls, encircling and barrier reefs is
56 THE BERMUDA ISLANDS.
primarily a region of subsidence—of subsidence now actually
taking place, or only recently completed; per contra, regions
characterized by fringing reefs are regions either of stability or
of slow and gradual upheaval. ‘The greatest area of indicated
subsidence is that of the Central Pacific, which has been as-
sumed to compass a tract measuring 6000 miles in length and
2000 miles in greatest width. Commencing at the Paumotu
group, or the Low Archipelago on the south-east, and extend-
ing to the Carolines on the north-west, the coral structures dot
at intervals the surface of the sea for a linear distance of 100
degrees of longitude, embracing in this, space several hundred
true islands, besides numerous reefs of one form or another.
In the Paumotu group alone there are, according to Dana, not
less than 80 atolls.
The existence of such an enormous subsidence area as is in-
volved in the Darwinian hypothesis is necessarily difficult to
realize, and, indeed, numerous apparently valid objections
seem to interpose themselves to its full acceptance. It has been
shown that within, or immediately on the border of, the sup-
posed subsiding area there occur local tracts where fringing
reefs take the place of-atolls; and, again, others where raised
coral patches or terraces clearly indicate elevation. ‘The coral
on some of the Hervey and Friendly islands is stated to oc-
cur at a height of 300 feet above sea-level; on the island of
Guan, one of the Ladrones, according to Quoy and Gaymard,
the coral rock is in places fully 600 feet above the sea. In
some island groups, as Hawai, Feejee, etc., coral structures ap-
parently indicative of both depression and elevation occur
interassociated among the different islands constituting those
groups, and the same feature—the interassociation of fringing
and barrier reefs with atolls—has been observed hy Semper in
the Pelew Archipelago (West Pacific). This condition, together
with various concomitant difficulties that lie in the way of the
Darwinian hypothesis, has led to the rejection by many
naturalists—Semper, Guppy, A. Agassiz, Murray, Geikie, and
others—of the subsidence-theory, and to the substitution for
THE CORAL-REEF PROBLEM. 57
it of a theory of simple coral upgrowth, with structural modi-
fications as depending principally upon currental action and
food-supply.
This theory, like its alternative, presupposes as a first, neces-
sary condition of coral growth the existence of a submarine
basement within the zone of coral life (1-20 fathoms). Upon
this, which may be the buried slope or the summit of a volcano,
or merely a bank, the coral animal develops and builds to the
surface. Where such a sub-structure does not immediately
exist, or rather does not extend to the zone within which reef
corals are limited, it is claimed that suitable foundations may
be obtained through the building up of submarine volcanoes by
the deposition on their summits of organic and other sediments.
This would explain the apparent anomaly of coral structures
rising from depths vastly exceeding the lower boundaries of
coral growth, a condition which to Mr. Darwin necessitated
the assumption of subsidence. It is well known that through-
out the greater mass of the ocean there is a constant rain or
down-pouring of organic particles in the form of the calcareous
and siliceous tests of Foraminifera, pteropods, diatoms, etc.,
much of which goes to form the vast accumulation of white
mud (Atlantic or Globigerina ooze) which covers the greater
part of the oceanic floor. Manifestly, such an accumulation
must eventually acquire great thickness. It is more than
doubtful, however, if any very considerable thickness: of such
deposit has been built up during the existing period of coral
growth, or that an accumulation of this kind has materially
aided in building up the sub-cora] buttresses of the deeper
seas. The investigations of Mr. Murray, deduced from data
obtained by the “Challenger,” indicate that a column of
oceanic water of 600 feet depth, with a transverse area of one
square mile, contains some 16 tons of suspended organic par-
ticles; these, if precipitated to the floor of the sea, would make
a deposit rotoo inch in thickness. It has thus far been im-
possible to determine the duration of life of the organisms
furnishing the organic particles, mainly Foraminifera, and
58 THE BERMUDA ISLANDS.
consequently there is no direct way of ascertaining in what
period the tests of a given column of water are replenished.
But manifestly, there can be no more rapid accumulation of
the calcareous ooze than there is lime-carbonate suspended in
the sea; and again, the quantity of lime-carbonate so sus-
pended must depend upon the quantity of the formative
material contained in the sea—the quantity of lime carried in
by the rivers, and any residual or surplus quantity that might
be already existing. Now, it would seem from careful obser-
vation made on many of the most important rivers of the
globe that the quantity of lime carried out by them into the
sea annually is about one-sixth that of their suspended sedi-
ment, which would cover the sea-bottom, if precipitated at a
rate proportional to that of the removal of continental sedi-
ment—one foot in 3000 years—to a depth of about ;,,, inch.
Assuming that one-half of this amount is used by the Fora-
minifera for the construction of their shells, the rest being
taken up by the mollusks, corals, etc., then the foraminiferal
accumulation from this source would be the ,J,, part of an
inch annually, or very nearly the amount that would accumu-
late from the droppings contained in the 600-foot column of
water, as deduced from Mr. Murray’s determination. At this
extremely slow rate of accumulation, it would require a period
of 100,000 years to build up the thickness of a single foot!
Naturally along coast-lines, where the molluscous animals
largely contribute to the general growing mass, and where inor-
ganic sedimentation is unusually brisk, the process of upgrowth
may be comparatively rapid, especially in the trend of powerful
oceanic currents. A condition of this kind seems to obtain
along the Floridian coast, and it is not unlikely, as has
been suggested by A. Agassiz, that the Florida banks have
been built up largely in the manner above described. But the
conditions become very different when the oceanic abyss, such
as the central Pacific, is substituted for a comparatively shallow
coast-line. Indeed, even in the case of the Floridian banks it
is doubtful if most. of their upgrowth is not really due to
THE CORAL-REEF PROBLEM. 59
bodily uplift rather than to organic and inorganic accumula-
tion, as we have most conclusive evidence of an uplift in the
peninsula of Florida in a period at least as late as the Plio-
cene. Nor are evidences of a more recent contrary movement
wanting in the same region.
It will, however, naturally be urged against this assumption
of slow accumulation that the quantity of the salts of lime
already contained by the sea is vastly in excess of that which
is annually thrown in by the rivers, and that, therefore, the
amount of formative material on hand is amply sufficient to
meet all the exigencies of a rapid growth. The quantity of
calcium actually contained in every cubic mile of sea-water is
estimated to be nearly 2,000,000 tons, while that held by an
equal volume of river-water is less than 150,000 tons. At the
rate of the present carrying capacity of rivers it is calculated
that it would require 680,000 years to pour into the ocean an
amount of calcium equal to that which is now held by it in
solution.* The question here naturally presents itself: To
what extent is this surplus quantity of lime drawn upon by the
oceanic organisms for the construction of their hard parts or
skeletons? It isin the nature of things impossible to give a
direct answer to this question, but the following considerations
suggest themselves. As far as our knowledge permits us to
pass beyond the region of facts, we can but assume that the
salinity of the sea is progressive or cumulative, and not the
reverse, and that the saline constituents of ocean water are
primarily the products of destruction arising from the wear
and tear of the land-surface. There seems to be no good rea-
son for supposing that the quantity of salts in the sea, and of
lime especially, was ever much in excess of what it is to-day,
unless it was near the beginning of geological time; on the con-
trary, there are some grounds for concluding that this quantity
may have been less, and even considerably less. If this con-
ception is true, it is manifest that, as far as organic consump-
*Murray: “Structure, Origin, and Distribution of Coral Reefs and Islands.”
Nature, Feb. 28, 1889, p. 426; 480,000 years according to Reade.
60 THE BERMUDA ISLANDS.
tion of limé is concerned, there is either existing stability in
the sea, or that the different shell-bearing animals remove less
-of the formative material for their own purposes than the sea
receives from continental erosion. In the calculation before
made we have used as a basis merely the quantity of lime-car-
bonate carried out in solution by rivers; to this must neces-
sarily be added that which is derived directly by the sea
through its own breakages—the wear of the coast-line—and
the other salts of lime of which no account has been taken. If
we double the quantity that has been assumed we will proba-
-bly more than cover the available supply; a rate of accumula-
tion, therefore, of one foot in 50,000 years would be the result,
It is needless to say that such a slow accumulation is hardly
compatible with any notion of growth from great depths, and
that it is entirely opposed to the view which holds to the
formation of giant banks leading up to the zone of coral life.*
But in what, it might be asked, lies the direct evidence that
giant banks are being built up through organic accumulations?
Is it merely the finding of foraminiferal and pteropod ooze on
projecting knobs of the ocean bottom? This is not a new con-
dition, and it is practically repeated in the Globigerina ooze
which covers much of the oceanic floor. It would, indeed, be
remarkable if such deposits did not exist, but their presence
gives no answer to the possibility of building up giant banks
under the conditions which would be considered necessary for
the making of coral islands. Noone has more carefully studied,
or is better acquainted with, the Florida reefs than Alexander
- Agassiz, and perhaps no class of reefs has been more frequently
appealed to in the recent discussion of coral structures than
. those examined by this authority. We are informed by Mr.
Agassiz that these reefs are merely organic growths and ac-
*In evidence of the possible rapid accumulation of a foraminiferal and
pteropod deposit, and the building up of submarine banks, Prof. Hickson (Address be-
fore British Assoc., Bath, 1888) instances the case of the basal limestone of the
elevated reefs of the Solomon Islands, to which attention has been called by Guppy.
But manifestly this limestone was formed in shallow water, where the conditions for
rapid organic accumulation are almost infinitely more favorable than they are in deep
water.
THE CORAL-REEF PROBLEM. 61
cumulations, whose present positions, whether of horizontal or
vertical distribution, have practically no connection with re-
cent movements either of elevation or depression. “There is
practically no evidence that the Florida reef, or any part of the
southern peninsula of Florida which has been formed by corals,
owes its existence to the effect of elevation ; or that the atolls of.
this district, such as those of the Marquesas or of the great
Alacran Reef, owe their peculiar structure to subsidence.” On.
what evidence, it might be asked, rest these assertions? It may
not he easy to prove subsidence in the case of the Marquesas
and the Alacran Reef, but I believe it would be equally diffi-
cult to prove the reverse proposition—i.¢., that there has been no
subsidence. As far as the Florida reefs themselves are concerned;
I believe the evidence is all but conclusive that they owe much,
if not most, of their existence to uplift, and to uplift within a
recent geological period. My own researches in the southern
part of the peninsula have demonstrated the existence of Plio-
cene deposits in vast horizontal, or nearly horizontal, beds as far
south as the Caloosahatchie, and there can be ro question that
these deposits, which rise to 10 or 15 feet above the level of the sea,
are continued for some distance still further to the south.” The
same deposits, moreover, are capped by deposits of Post-Pliocene
age, proving that an uplift took place in this region as late as the
Post-Pliocene period. Thatthis uplift should not have affected
the apex of the peninsula, and even the reefs beyond, seems
searcely credible. From what we now know of the structure of
the Floridian peninsula it is clear that this portion of the
North American continent represents a comparatively old
chapter in geological history, and that it has passed through
much the same phases of construction as the border area of the
Eastern and Southern United States. Its periods of elevation
and depression, extending back through the greater portion of
the Tertiary epoch, were largely coincident with those of the
4«¢ Three Cruises of the Blake.” I, p. 6]. 1888.
: 2 Explorations on the West Coast of Florida and in the Okeechobee Wilder-
ness,” 1887. : ‘
62 THE BERMUDA ISLANDS.
regions above indicated, and the movements were with little
doubt long sustained, and certainly affected large areas at a
time. There is nothing, as far as I can see, to indicate that
these movements were confined to what is now dry land; the
more natural conclusion is that the axial or plateau uplift ex-
tended much beyond the limits of the present peninsula, and
as well southward as westward or eastward. The similarity in
the geological structure of Yucatan, as it appears from our pres-
ent knowledge, lends weight to the supposition that the area
thus affected by movements was perhaps continuous completely
across the Gulf.
In explanation of the distinctive form of atolls—the ring
of coral with its inclosed lagoon—it is claimed by the oppo-
nents of the subsidence theory that coral plantations building
up from submarine banks will grow more rapidly on their
outer margins, where the food supply is the greatest, and
where, as compared with the inner parts of the mass, there is
less obstructive sediment, and thus an exterior rim or eleva-
tion would be formed. The differentiation of the inner and
outer parts, it is assumed, would be further intensified by the
removal in solution of the lime-carbonate from the less active
interior portion—the region of coral decay and detrital accum-
ulation—and the formation there of a shallow pan of water or
lagoon. That the distinctive features of an atoll may be brought
about somewhat in the manner here described can scarcely
be doubted; indeed, the supplemental atolls of diminutive size
that so frequently accompany the larger reefs, the serpula-reefs
of the Bermudas for example, convincingly prove the possi-
bility of ring structure without subsidence. But in instances
of this kind the ring is merely a narrow projection, barely
rising above the shallow central depression, and is due prob-
ably more to the action of a beating surf than to any other
cause. In the case of a true atoll with a large lagoon the con-
ditions are very different, and it seeins impossible to explain
the central depression, often 20, 30, and 40 fathoms, or even
THE CORAL-REEF PROBLEM. 63
more, in depth, on the assumption of internal solution, aided
by external acceleration as dependent upon an increased food
supply. It does not appear exactly clear why solution should
progress more rapidly within the lagoon than over the deeper
slopes of the coral buttress, where the protective power of the
living animal is also wanting; nor is it at all likely that such
solution as actually does take place within the lagoon more
than compensates for the accretion of sedimentary material
derived from the destruction of the surrounding shores, or for
the organic accumulation that is continuously forming along
the floor of the lagoon.
My examination of the Bermudas convinces me that, as far
as those islands are concerned, the quantity of lime removed
from the interior waters is far less than that which is added
through sedimentation and organic development. ‘he bot-
tom is everywhere covered with fine debris, and the even floor
indicates that this debris is of considerable thickness. One
has but to gaze upon the undercut and crumbling ledges of
Harrington Sound and the cliffs facing the lagoon to be con-
vinced that accumulation, and not solution, is the prevailing
condition in these waters. Yet we have here a depth of water
of from 50 to 80 feet. I am, indeed, far from convinced that
the organic accumulation which is here taking place by actual
growth does not far surpass the material removed through solu-
tion. ‘The tests, both perfect and fragmentary, of Foraminifera
are abundant everywhere, but in addition to material derived
from this source, there exist large areas which are seemingly
well covered with the shells of molluscous animals (Chama,
Area, Avicula, etc.) and sea-urchins (Toxopneustes variegatus).
The latter, with Arca Nox, are especially abundant. The
coral growth of Castle Harbor, and not less the insular
patches of millepore, etc., in the big lagoon, speak with suffi-
cient emphasis on this point. There can be no doubt, too,
that some of the basins and channels have been recently
shallowing through silting, but of course this may have been
brought about through a mere transference of material from
64 THE BERMUDA ISLANDS.
one point to another. The depth of water in the Flatts Inlet,
which receives a strong tidal current from the outer lagoon and
from Harrington Sound, is much less to-day than it was in
the early part of the century, when the Inlet furnished a safe
anchorage to vessels of large draught.
Mr. Bourne finds similar conditions to exist in the lagoons
of the Diego Garcia reef, and he entirely rejects the theory
that lagoons could have been primarily formed through solu-
tion. He shows that nowhere has the lagoon deepened since
the time when Capt. Moresby surveyed the region in 1837, but,
on the contrary, evidences of shoaling to the extent of a full
fathom on the south side are not wanting. It is also pointed
out that the depth of water in the lagoons of the various
islands which are associated with Diego Garcia is not propor-
tional to the size of the lagoon, as we should naturally expect
to find it in accordance with the theory of solution. This is also
true of the Bermudian waters, although their relations
somewhat differ from those of the Chagos Banks. Thus,
the depth of water in the comparatively small Harrington
Sound is measurably greater than that of the outer water, the
big lagoon; it is also much greater than we find it in the
superficially more extensive Castle Harbor.
Experiments made to determine the solvent power of sea-
water show that the process of solution is a very'slow one. It
appears indeed incredible, in the face of such energetic solu-
tion as is presumed to exist in the upper waters of the ocean,
that any extensive organic accumulation could ever take place
over the floor of the sea, where the solvent power of the water
is materially increased through pressure, and still less possible
that any considerable foundation could be built up from it, or’
from the summit of only a moderately depressed mountain
peak. ‘The fact that in so large a number of atolls the lagoons
are either entirely wanting, or are reduced to mere shallow
pans of water, also militates against the hypothesis of solution.
With regard to the formation of the primary ring through
accelerated growth on the outer margin, as depending upon
A YI):
THE CORAL-REEF PROBLEM. 65
an increased food-supply, it may be reasonably doubted if this
condition could obtain in the open ocean away from a land
area, inasmuch as by far the greater quantity of the food-sup-
ply.would be given to the polyps as a direct down-pouring
from above, and independently, or nearly so, of any currental
action. It is true that the outer polyps or colonies would be
favored by having an extra supply on their exposed bor-
ders, but ‘this would tend probably in the majority of cases
only to lateral extension, or to lateral extension combined
with upward growth—in other words, to a simple turbinated
growth with a nearly flat top. It is true that in a few instances,
as has been noted by Semper and Darwin, colonies of Porites,
having a turbinated form, exhibit a raised border or lip, but it
is equally true that in by far the greater number of cases the
individual larger colonies assume either a clavate or a hemi-
spherical form, the latter condition being also distinctive of
the giant brain-corals. Mr. Bourne, from his researches on
the Diego Garcia reef, also dismisses the notion that food-con-
veying currents are especially instrumental in shaping the
reefs, and he points out that frequently the most elevated side
of an atoll is turned away from such currents, and, again, that
a large number of coral islands are placed entirely to one side,
or out of the path, of the prevailing ocean current.
But even granting that through some method of accelerated
growth on the exterior an elevated bounding ring should be
formed, the difficulty in accounting for the existence of the
deep lagoon would in no wise be lessened; for, in the first
place, no such ring would be formed below the line of coral
growth, and we should consequently be compelled to assume
as antecedent to its formation the complete upward growth or
elevation of the submerged bank to the true coral zone, or to
a greatest possible depth beneath the surface of 100 or 120
feet. Manifestly, under such conditions there could be no
deep depression corresponding to lagoons of 200 or 300 feet
depth, unless these were subsequently formed by means other
than solution. Furthermore, it appears that the true energy
66 THE BERMUDA ISLANDS.
of coral growth is concentrated in the first zone of some fifty
or sixty feet, which would practically mark the depth at which
a bounding rim of accelerated growth would be formed, and
also fix the depth of tlre lagoons.* But as has already been
seen, the depth of nearly all extensive lagoons is very much
greater, in some cases six times as great, or more.
The difficulty in the premises disappears almost entirely if
we accept Mr. Darwin’s hypothesis of subsidence, for here the
accelerated outer growth is assumed to depend no less upon
interior retardation (as the result of the accumulation of in-
jurious sediment), as upon an actual increase in the quantity
of the food-supply. The depth and size of the lagoon will
then depend upon the extent of land that has undergone sub-
sidence, and upon the measure of its submergence. Where
the descent is very gradual the upward development of the
coral structures may by overgrowth completely close out the
lagoon ; where, on the other hand, the descent is unusually rapid,
more rapid than the compensating upward growth of the corals,
a “drowned ” atoll may be the result. The great Chagus Bank,
which is situated some 700 miles to the south of the Maldives
and has a length of about 90 miles with a greatest width of
70 miles, has generally been assumed to be only a completely
submerged or drowned atoll. If raised to the surface it would
be in the form of a true atoll, with a depth of water in the
lagoon of 40-50 fathoms. At the present time the bounding
reef is covered with water of from 4 to 10 fathoms depth. The
Bermuda Islands have also been instanced as an example of a
partially drowned atoll, but, as has been shown in the preced-
*It is surprising that this consideration in the assumed formation of deep lagoons
through accelerated marginal growth should be so generally overlooked. Prof. Hick-
son, in his address before the British Association (1888) on ‘‘ Theories of Coral Reefs
and Atolls,” furnishes an instance of such oversight. He says: “It seems very
probable then that when a large submarine’ bank, by accumulation of sediment or by
elevation, comes within the limit of coral growth, the growth commences and is
almost confined to the edges of the bank, and that in course of time the edges of the
bank reach the surface, whilst the centre of the bank has made little or no progress.
This seems to be a very reasonable explanation of the deep lagoons of large atolls,
and one to which at present I can see no valid objection.”
THE CORAL-REEF PROBLEM. 67
ing chapter, there is nothing in the present land-mass to indi-
cate that it bears any direct relation to an atoll ring.
An objection that has been frequently urged against the sub-
sidence theory, and one that has been more particularly in-
sisted upon by Guppy as the result of extended observations
made in the Solomon Islands, is that where fringing reefs are
exposed they usually exhibit only a moderate thickness of
true coral-rock, the basement or sub-structure being mainly of
a pelagic character—that is, built up of the remains of
pelagic animals (Foraminifera, etc). Hence, it is argued that
in the so-called subsidence reefs—atolls and barrier-reefs,—the
actual] thickness of coral is very limited, or barely more than
that which would fall within the regular zone of coral growth.
The few observations that have been made on this point, can-
not be considered to throw much light upon the question, the
more especially as the evidence obtained is far from corrobora-
tive. Furthermore, it is just in such elevated reefs that in ac-
cordance with the Darwinian theory we should frequently
look for a thin deposit of coral-rock, for if there has been eleva-
tion instead of subsidence the thickness must necessarily be
slight; when, however, subsidence had preceded elevation the
result would be the opposite. No weight should be attached to
the oft-repeated assertion that in the older geological forma-
tions there are no really massive reef-structures. This assér-
tion is entirely opposed to the facts, to cite but a single instance
presented by the Dolomites of the Tyrol, the reef-structure of
which has been so ably worked out by Mojsisovies and others.
Furthermore, it is practically impossible in the case of a large
number of the altered limestones to state whether they are of
coral origin or not.
One objection against the subsidence theory has still to be
considered. It is the association of fringing reefs with atolls.
This commingling of two distinct types of structure, implying
movements in opposite directions, has been much commented
upon, and placed under strong emphasis by the adherents of
the new views regarding the formation of coral islands. But
the occurrence appears to be entirely without significance.
68 THE BERMUDA ISLANDS.
An alternate movement of elevation and subsidence is no
more strange over an oceanic area than it is on the continental
borders. Yet we have here almost everywhere evidences of a
differential movement, and no geologist has for a moment ex-
pressed surprise at the manifestation. What then is the
anomaly of the occurrence of such movements in a coralline sea ?
How is the conception of subsidence antagonized by the facts
of elevation? If we conceive of an atoll, with a deep lagoon,
once having been formed through subsidence, what is to pre-
vent a succeeding elevation from lifting parts of this atoll, or
for that matter, the entire atoll-ring, above the water? We
could still have the lagoon of subsidence retained, and yet asa
last record of movement we would have merely the evidence
of elevation. Because a certain structure is formed through
subsidence it does not follow that this subsidence should not
be followed by elevation. This is but the order of things we
find everywhere expressed in the history of continental masses.
Indeed it would be but natural to look for local oscillations in
regions of extensive movement. Mr. Bourne lays great stress
upon the evidences of elevation (of a few feet) which are pre-
sented by Diego Garcia, and claims them to be conclusive
against “the idea of any subsidence being in progress, as Mr.
Darwin fancied to be the case in the Keeling atoll”*. I con-
fess that I can find nothing in this evidence which would pre-
clude an assumption of subsidence sufficiently recent to have
produced the characteristic atoll form. We have in the elevated
beach-rock of the Bermudas unequivocal evidences of elevation,
but equally conclusive are the evidences of the subsidence
which followed this elevation. In other words we have here
the conditions of Diego Garcia simply reversed. Again, in re-
gions where, as in that represented by the great Chagos Bank,
it might be assumed that “ drowned ” atolls have been formed
as the result of too rapid subsidence, a change of movement
would be all but certain to develop reefs of elevation in combi-
nation with those which are assumed to bear in their structure
*Loc. cit., p. 446.
THE CORAL-REEF PROBLEM. 69
the evidences of subsidence. In other words, there would be an
interassociation in the same archipelago of both fringing reefs
and atolls, for it can scarcely be conceived that all the project-
ing land-masses of the archipelago could, at the time when
movements of one kind or another set in, have been equally
elevated above, or depressed beneath, the surface of the water.
Hence, unequal developments must have taken place.
Such are the principal circumstances connected with the
history of coral islands. If the theory of subsidence cannot,
perhaps, be considered to be absolutely demonstrated, it ac-
cords best with the facts, and, indeed, may be said to be in
substantial harmony with them. Iurthermore, it helps to ex-
plain the significant fact, first pointed out by Dana, that a
very large, if not the greater, number of coral structures are
ranged along the line of greatest depression in the sea.
The question hete naturally suggests itself: Is there any
evidence supporting the theory of assumed subsidence of the
oceanic basins beyond what is furnished hy the coral islands?
It must be admitted that our positive knowledge on this
point is very limited—indeed, almost nothing. But various
considerations lead to the belief that the present site of the
oceanic basins is a very ancient one, and possibly one that has
not materially changed, except in so far as intensification is
concerned, since it was first marked out as the most prominent
feature of the earth’s crust. While manifestly we can have no
proof of this condition, it seems but reasonable to assume that
if this vast depression was formed through an early flexure of
the crust, and as the result of weakness in certain parts of that
crust, it has retained its position of depression from the first.
With a contracting or moving crust, moreover, particularly
under the special conditions of loading (sedimentation) and
continental unloading (denudation), it is likely that a depres-
sion of this kind would tend to sink or to subside, and force a
relief from strain in the uplift of the continents. This is the
view now held by probably the greater number of physicists
70 THE BERMUDA ISLANDS.
and geologists. But it does not carry with it the assumption
of a necessary permanence in the positions of continents and
oceans; it does not imply that the oceanic basins were
originally of the extent that they are to-day, as we are led to
believe by many geologists. It is far more probable that the
existing dimensions have been brought about through pro-
gressive or cumulative subsidence, which has gradually swept
away land-masses that at one time occupied some of the pres-
ent area of the sea. The long lines of ridges which have been
revealed to us by deep-sea soundings, and the placing on these
of many of the oceanic islands (volcanic peaks), together with
the evidence which the past and present distribution of animal
life carries with it, all support this conclusion. It seems, in-
deed, impossible to account for the existence of oceanic (vol-
canic) islands, or for the negative islands which rise as promi-
nences from the oceanic floor to within a comparatively short
distance of the surface, except on the assumption of subsidence.
What is the significance of buttresses like St. Helena, Ascen-
sion, the Caroline Islands, or the giant peaks of the Sandwich
Tslands rising from depths of two or three miles, or more?
Can it be assumed that they have been steadily built up vol-
canically from the ocean floor, four or five miles in height?
This is, perhaps, not impossible, but it hardly appears prok-
able. Vulcanism in one form or another doubtless manifests
itself over the floor of the ocean, but all indications point to a
comparatively limited action in the greater depths. Were
submarine eruptions at all numerous, or of that intensity
which might be assumed to be necessary for the construction
of a giant mountain-peak, we should be probably made
aware of their existence in a manner not less emphatic than
in the case of subaerial eruptions. It might be assumed that
the long intervals at which eruptions take place would prevent
special notice of such phenomena, and that, consequently,
their effects, even if most momentous, would be placed prac-
tically beyond observation. But this is not likely to be the
case. When we consider the large number of peaks that in
THE CORAL-REEF PROBLEM. 71
one form or another come to, or beyond, the surface, and real-
ize how few of them are in a condition of activity, it is diffi-
cult to believe that many of these peaks are to-day in a course
of volcanic construction, or that other submarine peaks, scat-
tered between these, are undergoing a similar process of for-
‘mation. It seems far more natural to assume that these peaks
or islands have been for a long time fully formed, and that
they were formed at a time when their relations to the sur-
rounding sea were more nearly those which govern the posi-
tions of by far the greater number of the active volcanoes of
to-day. In other words, they were probably continental or
sub-continental, and their present positions are the indices of
continental subsidence; the vast mass of overflowing water
may have extinguished the fires that at one time supplied the
material for eruption.
The recent discovery of a large number of submarine peaks,
whose existence had not previously been even surmised, rising
to within a comparatively short distance of the surface, seems
to support the general conclusion of subsidence. The sound-
ings of telegraph ships indicate that between the latitude of
Lisbon and the island of Teneriffe there are not less than seven
peaks over which the depth of water varies from not more than
12 to 500 fathoms. From the entire oceanic basin it is claimed
that there are already known about 300 such “submarine
cones, rising from great depths up to within depths of from 500
to 10 fathoms from the surface’*.
Probably the greatest difficulty that lies in the way of the
acceptance of the subsidence theory of coral structures is the
fact that there are not more islands which are in a condition
of semi-formation—. e., peaks, partially submerged and sur-
rounded by an encircling barrier reef. This is not an in-
superable objection, and might be treated by some geologists
in the nature of negative evidence. But the fact is of signifi-
cance, and must be taken into account for whatever it may be
*Murray: Aafure, Feb. 28, 1889, p. 425,
72 THE BERMUDA ISLANDS.
worth, in all theories bearing upon the formation of coral
islands.
Since the preceding notes were sent to press Alexander
Agassiz has published his observations on the “ Coral Reefs of
the Hawaiian Islands.”* This paper, apart from giving de-
tailed descriptions of the reefs of the Sandwich Islands,
presents, on the whole, perhaps the clearest statement of views
bearing upon the structure of coral islands that has yet been
published, but it can scarcely be said that it contributes
materially toward the solution of the general problem. Mr.
Agassiz asserts himself to be a pronounced opponent of the
theory of subsidence, as, indeed, he has always been since he
first undertook the very careful survey of the Florida reefs.
I think it will be generally admitted, however, that the evi-
dence which is now brought forward is, as far as the substitute
theory is concerned, almost wholly negative, while much of it
favors the theory of subsidence. Mr. Agassiz assumes certain
definite premises or propositions, which are dogmatically
stated, but it is difficult to find the exact evidence upon which
these premises are based. The special points of evidence
which, in the opinion of this authority, render the subsidence
theory unnecessary and untenable are practically the same as
those which have already been discussed, and consequently
they call for but little detailed consideration.
Mr. Agassiz considers it “remarkable that Darwin, who is so
strongly opposed to all cataclysmic explanations, should in
the case of the coral reefs cling to a theory which is based
upon the disappearance-of a Pacific continent, and be appar-
ently so unwilling to recognize the agency of more natural
and far simpler causes;” and he further expresses himself:
“as long as we can in so many districts explain the formation
of atolls and of barrier reefs by other causes, fully sufficient to
account for the numerous exceptions to the theory of Darwin,
which have been observed by so many investigators since the
*Bulletin Mus. Comp! Zoology, XVII, April, 1889.
THE CORAL-REEF PROBLEM. 73
days of Darwin and Dana, it seems unnecessary to account for
their presence by a gigantic subsidence, of which although we
may not deny it, we can vet have but little positive proof”
(p. 131). These reflections are well so far as they go, but have
the “natural and far simpler causes” underlying the forma-
tion of coral reefs, which are to take precedence over the Dar-
winian hypothesis, been satisfactorily demonstrated? I believe
not, and I further believe with Dana and Von Lendenfeld that
no facts that have yet been brought forward stand in direct op-
prsition to the theory of subsidence.* Mr. Agassiz assures us
that the “ Mosquito Bank, the Yucatan Bank, and the smaller
banks between Honduras and Jamaica, are all proof that
limestone banks are forming at any depth in the sea, or upon
pre-existing telluric folds or peaks, constituting banks upon
which, when they have reached a certain depth, corals will
grow © (p. 133), and a similar condition is considered to under-
lie the formation of the Florida reefs. It has, however, not
been shown that these banks have been actually built up in
the manner that has been described, or that any other banks
have been similarly reared from really great depths. The
assertion that the Florida reefs have not been assisted in their
upward growth by elevation (p. 142) is, as far as I can see, not
supported by fact, for we have in the regular horizontal lime-
stone beds of the southern part of the peninsula the most con-
clusive evidence of elevation even as late as the Pliocene and
Post-Pliocene periods. and there is every reason to believe,
even if the condition cannot be proved, that this upward
movement did not stop short of the coral-forming tract. Nor
does this movement of elevation preclude the possibility of
subsidences having taken place coincidentally in the same re-_
gion. It appears to me by no means certain that the deep
channel now separating the apex of the peninsula of Florida
from Cuba, and known as the Straits of Florida, was really
cut by the Gulf Stream, as is maintained by Mr. Agassiz. It
seems to me far more probable that it, as well as some of the
“* Natur wissenschaftliche KRundschau, Oct. 13, 18SS.
74 THE BERMUDA ISLANDS.
other deep channels separating the West Indian Islands, was
formed through subsidence—the result of localized breakages
in the crust. This view has already been expressed by Suess,’
who draws a close parallel between the physiographic con-
struction of the basin of the Gulf of Mexico and that of the
Mediterranean. 7
Mr. Agassiz thinks it “somewhat surprising that, in the dis-
cussion which has lately been carried on in the English re-
views by the Duke of Argyll, Huxley, Judd, and others,
regarding the new theory of coral reefs, no one should have
dwelt upon the fact, that, with the exception of Dana, Jukes,
and others who published their results on coral reefs soon
after Darwin’s theory took the scientific world by storm, not a
single recent original investigator of coral reefs has been able
to accept this explanation as applicable to the special district
which he himself examined ” (p. 183). This condition may be
surprising, but it is not less surprising that the different in-
vestigators who have rejected the Darwinian hypothesis should
have thus far failed to agree among themselves as to their own
special theories. Thus, the “solution theory ” of the formation
of the atoll-lagoon, which has been so much emphasized by
Mr. Murray, and the possibilities of which we have already
discussed, is practicably rejected by Bourne, Guppy, and
Wharton’, and even Agassiz expresses himself not fully satis-
fied with its efficiency. And as far as I know no satisfactory
explanation of the formation of the deep lagoons has been
given by any of these investigators. Captain Warton has re-
cently described* a number of submerged reef-structures in
the China Sea which have a deep flat centre, surrounded by.
_ an elevated growing rim; it is assumed that were this rim to
grow up to the surface we would have the characteristic feat-
ures of an atoll, with its deep central lagoon, presented. But
1‘Antlhits der Lerde, I.
2NMature, Feb. 28, 1888.
3Loc. cit., p. 893.
THE CORAL-REEF PROBLEM. 75
there is no evidence to show that these submerged atoll-like
banks are not really banks of subsidence, rather than of up-
ward growth, and in their general features they do not differ
from the Chagos Bank which Mr. Darwin considered to repre-
sent a half-drowned atoll. Until a satisfactory explanation is
furnished of the origin of these central lagoons, so long must
any theory bearing upon the formation of coral structures be
considered merely tentative. In the case of the Bermuda
Islands, which limit the field of my own investigations in this
direction, I am confident that, whatever may have been the
original construction of the region, the present lagoon features
have been brought about through subsidence; and this con-
clusion was reached before me by Prof. Rice, who seems to
have been amply satisfied with the subsidence theory!
On one point in connection with his recent survey Mr.
Agassiz furnishes important testimony, and that is as to the
actual thickness of the coral-made rock, or, at least, the depth
beneath the surface at which this rock occurs. This has been
determined by the artesian borings made in the vicinity of
Honolulu, and elsewhere. At various points the bore pierced
coral-rock at depths of 100-500 feet beneath the sea-level. In the
well of Mr. James Campbell, near the Pearl River Lagoon (?),
28 feet of white coral was struck at a depth of nearly 1000 feet
below high-water mark (p. 153), and again at “ Waimea, Oahu,
900 feet was drilled through hard ringing coral rock ” (p. 152).
In these facts, however, Mr. Agassiz sees no evidence of sub-
sidence. He prefers to account for the great thickness of the
coral rock “ by the extension seaward of a growing reef, active
only within narrow limits near the surface, which is constantly
pushing its way seaward upon the talus formed below the liv-
ing edge. This talus may be of any thickness, and the older
the reef, the greater its height would be, as nothing indicates
that in the Hawaiian district there has been any subsidence to
account for such a thickness of coral rock in its fringing reef”
(p. 154). But where are the evidences which support this ex-
planation? I must confess that I fail to see any. The assump-
76 THE BERMUDA ISLANDS.
tion of a seawardly-extending talus of coral is, it appears to
me, purely gratuitous. Indeed, with the very gentle slope that
these islands have beneath the sea it is extremely doubtful if
any extensive talus could accumulate as a result of either
downflow or downwash. Prof. Dana has well supplied the
argument on this point, and its seems to me that it is unan-
swerable. With a gradient of perhaps eight degrees, and
not impossibly much less, it is almost inconceivable that there
should be much lateral spread of detached coral boulders.
Neither wave-action nor the action of the oceanic currents,
except possibly under conditions of earthquake disturbance,
would be likely to effect the required displacement.
Again, it might be asked, what kind of direct evidence must
we look for to establish the point that there has been no great
progressive subsidence in the Hawaiian Islands? The needed
evidence is just of that kind which it pleases the Earth to keep
to herself, and after which the geologist has in most instances
sought in vain. The fact that cinder-cones are found “ with
their base close to the present sea-level” proves, it appears to
me, nothing in this connection, and I fail to see the argument
which draws from their existence a proof of non-subsidence.
But Agassiz himself admits that there is ‘some evidence of
subsidence [about 50 feet] on the southern shore of Hawaii”
(p. 154).
On the whole, it seems to me, that the facts as they are pre-
sented are, if they indicate anything at all, directly in favor
of subsidence, and of subsidence on an extensive scale. They
are in my mind far more conclusive than the somewhat simi-
lar facts which have been generally accepted by geologists to
prove depression or subsidence in delta-deposits, such as those
of the Mississippi or Ganges. Dr. W. O. Crosby, in his paper
on “The Elevated Coral Reefs of Cuba,”* shows that the coral
limestone of Cuba is in places at least a thousand feet in
thickness, and he naturally infers that there must have been
*Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. History, XXII, 1882-83, p. 124.
THE CORAL-REEF PROBLEM. 77
subsidence to nearly this amount. Mr. Agassiz, commenting
on this important observation, says (p. 150, note) that it does
“not throw any additional light on Darwin’s theory of sub-
sidence; it is of the same character as all the statements
which prove the subsidence by the existence of coral reefs, and
while there may have been coral reefs formed during sub-
sidence, it does not prove that their growth is due to subsidence
any more than the presence of elevated reefs proves them to
be due to elevation.” This criticism is in a measure valid,
but it must be remembered that one of the “strong” points
urged by Guppy and others against the subsidence theory was
the (supposed) non-existence of massive deposits of coral-lime-
stone, or such as indicated formation through protracted sub-
sidence. But here we surely have such a limestone (provided
the observation is correctly made), and its presence removes
what might have been a valid argument against the Darwin-
ian hypothesis. And further, there is reason to believe that
the thousands of feet of reef-structure which have been de-
scribed by Sawkins in Jamaica are largely, if not mainly, of
coral growth, and represent a formation produced during a
long period of subsidence.
In the foregoing discussion of the structure of coral reefs, as
also in the chapter treating of the physical history of the Ber-
mudas, I have used the term “subsidence” (and necessarily its
opposite—elevation) in a relative sense, indicating a depression
or submergence of the land beneath the sea. But whether
this submergence was due to a positive movement on the part
of the land, or to a change of level (rise) in ‘the water, cannot
readily be determined, as the phenomena attending either
form of movement would be practically identical. The broad
problem of oceanic transgression and continental stability,
which has been so forcibly outlined by Suess, cannot be
properly treated in this place.
V.
THE RELATIONSHIP OF THE BERMUDIAN FAUNA.
Mr. Wallace, in “Island Life,” has ably discussed the more
general features of the Bermudian fauna, and analyzed the
conditions which gave to the fauna its distinctive characters.
The new material which we were fortunate to obtain enables
us to enter further into the discussion, and to supplement and
expand the conclusions which had been reached from the
study of only a limited number of animal groups.
In its broader aspects the Bermudian fauna is strictly non-
continental; it lacks those elements which we associate with
the animal life of any extended land area, while negatively, in
the paucity of animal forms in general, it presents a character-
istic of insular faunas. The deficiencies in both the higher and
the lower groups of animals are well marked, and the number
of special types represented is not very great. The vast body of
water which separates these islands from the mainland has, as
might have been anticipated, largely prevented the crossing of
American animals, and this is true of all the groups except
volants. Barring the two species of whale—right-whale and
sperm-whale—which visit the waters of the archipelago, the
only “wild” mammalian forms of the region are bats, rats,
and a possible shrew (Sorex). The animal supposed to be a
shrew is referred to by Matthew Jones (Mammals of Bermuda,
Bull. U. S. National Museum, 1884), but unfortunately no
positive identification has been made. Four species of rat—
the brown or Norway rat, the black rat, the tree or roof rat
(Mus tectorum), and the common mouse (Mus musculus)—are re-
RELATIONSHIP OF THE FAUNA. 79
corded; the black rat, as elsewhere, is rapidly disappearing,
and is now on the verge of extinction. There is little reason
to doubt that some, and possibly all, of these forms were trans-
ported to the islands in the holds of vessels, just as they have
been carried from Europe to America, but no absolute date can
be fixed for the first rat visitation. If the accounts of Jourdan
are to be credited, no rats were known prior to about 1610,
although only a few years later (1618) the islands appear to
have been largely overrun by the tree-rat, and to such an ex-
tent that, as Captain John Smith, in his History of Virginia,
says, ‘there was no island but it was pestered with them; and
some fishes have been taken with rats in their bellies, which
they caught in swimming from ile to ile; their nests had
almost in every tree, and in most places their burrowes in the
ground like conies; they spared not the fruits of the plants, or
trees, nor the very plants themselves, but ate them up” (Jones,
p. 158). This great abundance, as Matthew Jones well remarks,
points toa much earlier colonization than the purely historical
data indicate, allowing even for the most rapid development
that these animals are capable of. It would, indeed, be some-
what surprising if these animals had not made an earlier ap-
pearance, for it can be readily conceived that at least some
individuals, more particularly of the tree-rat, would have found
their way over, if not through the agency of vessels, on the
drift timber which must at times have reached the islands.
The narrative of Americus Vespucius, as bearing upon the
islands of Fernando de Noronha, is interesting in this connec-
tion, since it shows that these islands, which lie directly in the
line of the westward-sweeping equatorial currents, were in-
habited by a form of big rat as early as 1503, the year of
Vespucius’s fourth voyage. How and whence this animal
came to the islands it is impossible to say, but not unlikely,
as has been suggested by Mr. Wallace and Prof. Branner,* it,
together with a species of amphisbeenian, may have been cur-
rentally distributed from Western Africa, a supposition that
*Branner, Fauna of the Islands of Fernando de Noronha—Amet. Naturalist,
Oct., 1888, p. 871.
80 THE BERMUDA ISLANDS.
seems not unlikely in view of certain anomalies of distribution
which are presented by the Bermudian fauna.
Up to the present time there have been recorded from the
Bermudas four species of bats, two of which, the silver-haired
bat (Vesperugo noctivagans) and the hoary bat (Atalapha cinerea),
are common North American forms, while the remaining two
(Trachyops cirrhosus—a vampire—and Molossus rufus, var.
obscurus) are more strictly tropical, ranging over much of
South America and the West Indian Islands. Specimens of
the last two, coming from the Bermudas, are in the collections
of the British Museum, and appear in Mr. Dobson’s Catalogue
(1878). These animals must, however, be of extremely rare
oecurrence in the islands, since they were unknown to both
Mr. Jones and Mr. J. L. Hurdis, the latter a fourteen years
resident. The silver-haired bat is about equally rare, as but
a single specimen seeins to have been noticed in the island group,
and that one nearly forty years ago.* Even the commoner
‘form (Molossus obscurus) is very uncommon, and appears only
in the autunin months, when the westerly storms bring over
numbers of American birds. So rare, indeed, are these
animals generally that they are seemingly unknown to the
majority of the inhabitants, and even among the older resi-
dents I found but little knowledge of cheiropterology. It is
singular, in view of the scarcity of these animals, that Capt.
Nelson should have considered the “red earth” of the Ber-
mudas, and also of the Baliamas, to have been formed largely
as an accumulation of the rejectamenta of bats, which in-
habited “once-existing caverns” (Journ. Geol. Soc. London,
IX, p. 209). We observed no bats in any of the caves or
caverns which we visited, nor.did “ancient” guardians of these
caverns know anything about such animals. The very rare
occurrence of bats in the islands, and the circumstance that
they are most conspicuous during the periods of heavy storms,
prove almost conclusively that these animals are merely in-
blown stragglers.
*Jones, Mammals of Bermuda, of. cit., p. 145.
COCOANUT PALMS
RELATIONSHIP OF THE FAUNA. 81
The bird fauna of the Bermudas, including both land and
water forms, comprises, as far as is known, some 187 or 188
species, which, with two or three exceptions, are members of
the North American fauna. These exceptions are the sky-
lark (Alauda orvensis), common European snipe (Gallinago
media), and gold-finch (Carduelis elegans). The first, of which
but a single specimen has been obtained, has generally been
considered to be an escaped cage-bird, but Savile Reid, in his
review of the birds of Bermuda (Bull. U. S. National Museum,
No. 25, 1884, p. 178), believes it to have been more likely an
inblown straggler. Seemingly only two specimens of the
European snipe have been recorded, both of them from Pem-
broke Marsh, where they were shot in December 1847, by
Colonel Wedderburn. The single specimen of gold-finch was
observed by Savile Reid near Harrington Sound, in April,
1875; it was very wild, but is still supposed to have been
an escaped prisoner. Two other European birds, the wheat-ear
(Saxicola enanthe) and land-rail (Crex pratensis), have also been
noted in the Bermudas, but both of these find their way to
Greenland and the mainland of America, so that their occur-
rence is less remarkable than that of the other forms.
Of the entire Bermudian avifauna somewhat less than one-
half the species are land-birds, and of these a fair proportion
have been observed only on one or two occasions. There
appear to be but eleven permanent residents, nine land-birds,
and two water-birds, to wit: cat-bird (Galeoscoptes Carolinensis),
blue-bird (Sialia sialis), white-eyed vireo (Vireo Noveboracensis),
English sparrow (Passer domesticus), cardinal-bird (Cardinalis
cardinalis), crow (Corvus Americanus), Virginia quail (Colinus
Virginianus), ground dove (Columbigallina passerina), great blue
heron (Ardea herodias), Florida gallinule (Gallinwa galeata),
and tropic-bird (Phaéton flavirostris). Two or three species of
shearwater (Puffinus Anglorum, P. obscurus, ? P. opisthomelas)
have at intervals been found breeding in the Bermudas, but
seemingly they have now deserted these islands for other
82 THE BERMUDA ISLANDS,
quarters.* Mr. Savile Reid informs us that the presence of
the Virginia quail or “ bob-white” marks a recent introduction,
the bird having entirely disappeared from the islands with
the year 1840; an importation from the United States was
made in 1858 or 1859, and is the orgin of the existing stock
of birds.
Mr. Witmer Stone, one of my assistants, has furnished me
with the following notes on non-resident birds observed by him
during our visits to the islands in the month of July, a season
of the year when the bird fauna is probably at its minimum:
Wilson’s petrel (Oceanites oceanicus). A single individual
seen in the wake of the steamer a sliort distance out from the
islands.
Least sandpiper (Tringa minutilla). Several individuals
seen near Spittal Pond, July 15.
Piping plover (digialitis meloda). A single individual, which
followed in the wake of the departing steamer for the better
part of a day.
Green heron (Ardea virescens). A single individual observed
in the'mangroves of Walsingham.
We heard or saw all the resident birds of the islands with
the exception of the great blue heron (Ardea herodias). The
first tropic bird was seen before the land was yet sighted, and
from this time until our departure we seldom lost sight of these
beautiful creatures. At the time of our visit the breeding season
was nearly over, and the nearly fledged young were to be seen
sitting on the ledges overhanging the waters. The single egg
is deposited in holes in the rock, which are apparently excavated
by the parent. We found the birds breeding both on Har-
rington Sound and on the south shore. The little English
sparrow was also found breeding among the shelving rocks of
Harrington Sound. We observed but three crows during our
sojourn, and it would appear that this bird, which was at
various times abundant, even as early as the beginning of the
*Mr. Wallace mentions the coot as 4 permanent resident, but probably the bird
intended is the gallinule.
RELATIONSHIP OF THE FAUNA. 83
seventeenth century, and as late as the last decade, is again be-
coming rare.
The most regular and abundant, among land-birds, of the
“regular” visitants are the small-billed water-thrush (Seiwrus
Noveboracensis), snow bunting (Plectrophanes nivalis), bobolink
(Dolichonyx oryzivorus), night hawk (Chordeiles Virginianus),
and belted kingfisher (Ceryle alcyon), some of which arrive and
go with almost strict punctuality to season. The pigeon-hawk
(Hypotriorchis columbarius) and osprey (Pandion haliaétus), as
also one or two species of owl, are somewhat less regular, but
not exactly uncommon. If we except the Seiurus, all these
birds are either partial migrants or hard fliers, and it is not
difficult to account for their presence in the islands. Some of
them, doubtless, reach the Berniudas in the direct line of their
migration, and are not wind-borne. The regularity of the ar-
rivals proves this almost beyond question, as it likewise does
in the case of the numerous water-fowl—sandpipers, plovers,
snipe, ete,—which so largely abound during the seasons of
migration. The condition is otherwise with the birds that have
been met with only at long intervals or on single occasions.
There can be no question that these are wind-swept, and have
been involuntarily carried seaward by sudden storms. Some
of the more delicate birds, such as the warblers, tits, and hum-
ming-bird, have thus managed to reach the islands, while,
doubtless, many more perished in the interval separating them
from the mainland. It is interesting to note that even such a
large bird as the American swan should have crossed this
stretch of the ocean, but it is diffcult to conceive that the pres-
ence of this bird is due to simple wind-drift. May it not bea
case of misdirected flight, following the lead of some other
birds? Possibly the exceptional occurrence of the flamingo
(Phenicopterus ruber) may be similarly accounted for.
Excluding the marine turtles which visit the waters there is
but a single reptile in the islands. It is a skink, Eumeces
longirostris, a form closely related to the common skink of the
84 THE BERMUDA ISLANDS.
Eastern and Southern United States, Humeces fasciatus. The
animal is said to be very common, but we saw and obtained
but a single specimen. Until within the last few years the
batrachians were wholly wanting from the Bermudas, or at
least supposed to be so. Latterly, specimens of the big Bufo
marinus were introduced; and seemingly the new toad does
well. We saw several of these animals in the brackish waters
near the Devonshire marshes. Not unlikely a species of
cecilian also belongs to the Bermudian fauna, and may
indeed be indigenous. We obtained from under a stone a
number of eggs beaded to one another in the form of a string,
which I was unable to place. Prof. Ryder, of the Univer-
sity of Pennslyvania, has kindly examined these for me, and
he believes that they are the eggs of ceecilians. They certainly
bear a very close resemblance to the figures and descriptions of
the ova of the Cecilia, and most so, perhaps, to those of the
genus Cecilia itself. It would be interesting to determine to
what animal the eggs really belonged. They measured about
5 mm. in diameter.
The preceding enumeration of species brings prominently
to light three important points in zoogeography: 1. The im-
poverished character of the vertebrate fauna; 2, the distine-
tively American, and more particularly, North American,
aspect of this fauna; and 3, the general absence of forms
peculiar to the islands. These conditions would seem to im-
ply a permanent (past) isolation of the islands from the near-
est mainland, and a comparatively brief existence. But this
need not necessarily have been the case. Even if we admit
a former connection with, or near approach to, the American
continent, for which, however, there appears to be but little, if
any, satisfactory evidence, we could scarcely hope, under the
conditions which have marked the history of the Bermudas,
to have retained many elements of a continental vertebrate
fauna. The restricted area and absence of freshwater, in con-
junction with the depredations of birds of prey, would have
soon exterminated, or all but exterminated, what there may
RELATIONSHIP OF THE FAUNA. 85
have been of mammals, reptiles, and amphibians, leaving but
a few groups—bats, rodents—as possible survivals. Nor could
we reasonably expect to find the remains of such animals
preserved either in the coral rock or inthe drift-rock of the
islands. With regard to the question of the recent origination
of the islands the evidence from the vertebrate fauna proves
little. The great distance of the islands from the mainland in
itself explains the poverty of the fauna, whether this be old or
new, while the absence of distinctive or special types among
birds is, as Mr. Wallace well holds, due to the too frequent
crossing of migrants or involuntary wanderers, which keeps
the various breeds true, and prevents specific modification.
The absence of peculiar species is, therefore, not a result of
newness; on the contrary, certain considerations seem to indi-
cate that the island group is of greater antiquity than has
been generally assumed, and not impossibly some of the lower
forms of life now inhabiting it are descendants of an ancient
fauna which was well developed before the present physical
conditions were established.
An analysis of the Bermudian invertebrate fauna shows
some very interesting and remarkable features, which prove
the complexity of zoogeographical inquiry. Before our visit
but little systematic work—for most of which we are indebted
to Matthew Jones—was done in this department of zoology,
and, doubtless, much still remains to he done. But the general
features of this fauna are now sufficiently determined to per-
mit of satisfactory conclusions being drawn from them.
The marine Mollusca of the archipelago, which up to the
time of our visit were listed at about 80 species, comprise, as
far as is now known, some 170 species. These, with probably
less than a dozen exceptions, are all members of the West
Indian or Floridian faunas. Lying in the path of the Gulf
Stream drift, which strands upon the island-shores vast quanti-
ties of the Gulf-weed (Sargassum bacciferum), there seems little
reason to doubt that by far the greater number of these forms
86 THE BERMUDA ISLANDS.
were given to the region from the south. The species peculiar
to the Bermudas are, as far as is now known, about eleven in
number, none of which had been described previous to our
exploration. ‘They are:
Octopus chromatus,
Aplysia xquorea,
Chromodoris zebra,
Onchidium (Onchidiella) trans-Atlanticum,
Emarginula dentigera,
Emarginula pilewn,
Cxcum termes,
Macoma eborea,
Mysia pellucida,
Cytherea Penistoni,
Chama Bermudensis.
In addition to the above there are several shells (Phos,
Columbella, Pleurotoma) which I have been unable to place,
and which may prove distinctive of this fauna. On the other
hand, it is not impossible that some of the forms above named
may be found elsewhere, and thus lessen the amount of in-
dividuality which the Bermudian fauna now presents. Thus,
the Murex nuceus, of Mérch, which was supposed to be peculiar
to the Bermudas, has recently been found at Marco, west coast
of the peninsula of Florida; and a species of Cythara,
(unnamed) which I obtained at Shelly Bay, I have since found
among unidentified material, from Florida, contained in the
collections of the Academy of Natural Sciences. But the facts
as they stand are sufficiently suggestive, and in conjunc-
tion with much more marked peculiarities presented by the
terrestrial Mollusca, point strongly, though by no means con-
clusively, to a faunal individuality that could have arisen only
as the result of long existence, or of a faunal modification that
was unusually rapid in its development. How rapid this modifi-
cation may have been, or how old the islands may be, it is im-
possible to say, and the terms can, therefore, only be used in a
relative sense; but with either condition an antiquity is indi-
RELATIONSHIP OF THE FAUNA. 87
cated which extends probably far beyond the time that is
generally associated with the making of “recent” coral
islands.
The number of terrestrial mollusks credited to the Bermudas
is usually given at 19 or 20, but the list which appears further
on shows that this number must be increased to 30. An anal-
ysis of this list indicates that of the thirty species sixteen, or
somewhat over half, are known also from the West Indian
islands, five (Helix vortex, H. microdonta, H. pulchella?, H.
appressa, and Pupoides fallax) occur in the United States, three
in Europe or the East Atlantic islands (Madeira, Azores— Helix
ventricosa, Helix pulchella, Cecilianella acicula), while not less
than eight, including all the species of the remarkable group
Pecilozonites, appear to be confined to the Bermudas. These
species are: Helix discrepans, Poccilozonites Bermudensis, P. cir-
cumfirmata, P. Reiniana, Succinea Bermudensis, Alexia Bermuden-
sis, Melampus Redfieldi, and Helicina convexa. To this number
may perhaps also be added the somewhat doubtful Helix
hypolepta. The large proportion of special forms, taken in con-
junction with the development of a distinct group, is certainly
remarkable in the case of an island group which has been
generally considered to be recent in formation, but this spe-
cialization is also well marked in some of the other animal
groups. The fact argues for considerable antiquity, and it is
interesting to note in this connection that the ancestral type of
the peculiar molluscan genus Pecilozonites is represented in
the common sub-fossil ‘P. (Helix) Nelsoni, the probable progeni-
tor of the recent P. (Helix) Bermudensis.
The conditions governing the dispersal of the terrestrial
Mollusca have been fully discussed by Mr. Darwin and Mr.
Wallace, and there can be little or no doubt that their explana-
tion of the oceanic transport of these animals is the true one.
The floating material of the Gulf-drift has in this instance,
doubtless, sufficed to bring most, if not all, of the non-peculiar
species of the islands from the West Indies and the Southern
United States, A few of the species, again, may have been
88 THE BERMUDA ISLANDS.
transported by vessels, or even through the agency of birds.
The interesting question here naturally presents itself: Of
what relation to the Bermudian fauna are the two or three
identical species—Helix ventricosa, H. pulchella, and Cecilianella
acicula—which occur in the East Atlantic islands (Azores,
Madeira, Canaries) and Europe? Are they a part of the west-
ern fauna which has gradually drifted eastward, and stocked the
European continent from a home originally insular? The
species (two, at least) have seemingly not yet been found in the
western hemisphere outside of the Bermudas, and possibly they
do not occur elsewhere. If this is the case it is hardly likely
that they could have been carried (except through the agency of
man) from the Bermudas to the Azores or the Canaries, since
the first-named islands lie considerably to the eastward of the
Gulf current, although still within the influence of the Gulf-
drift. The fact that none of the species of the peculiar genus
Peecilozonites are found in the Azores or the Canaries is a fur-
ther argument against an assumed eastwardly transport. On the
other hand, it is just possible that the Bermudas have received
these species from the Azores and Canaries through the return
Lusitanian and equatorial currents, and that the Azores fur-
nished to Europe the continental representatives of the species.
There would be nothing strange in this, and the northern posi-
tion of the return currental flow might explain the absence of
these forms from the West Indian Islands. That islands, which
are favorably situated as far as winds and currents are con-
cerned, should have.transmitted to continental areas portions
of their faunas is what we should but expect. It is not only
that the continents furnish the islands, but necessarily the
islands must furnish the continents, but to what extent this
reciprocal action takes place cannot well be determined. From
various considerations Morelet has argued that some of the
molluscan forms of meridional Europe must have originated
in, or, at least, been derived from, the Azores. If the ocean
currents which now pass off the Southeastern United States
trended in the opposite direction there can be no question that
RELATIONSHIP OF THE FAUNA. 89
some of the peculiar Jand-snails of the Bermudas would be
drifted to our shores, where, with a favorable climate and vege-
table growth, they would soon multiply and spread, and to
such an extent as to make it appear as though they originated
on the continent.
It might be objected that these seeming anomalies of dis-
tribution can be readily accounted for by assuming that there
has been simple artificial transport by means of vessels. And,
no doubt, full allowance must be made for this contingent dis-
tribution. But, again, on this assumption the absence of the
commonest species of land mollusks—those which have been
most broadly distributed over the earth’s surface, and which
would have found congenial conditions of environment in the
Bermudas—becomes very striking, and equally so whether we
consider the forms that may have been transported from the
Old World or from the New.
The marine molluscan fauna of the Bermudas is, as has
already been seen, overwhelmingly Antillean in character, and
there can be no question that its own history is intimately
bound up with the history of the fauna of the West Indies.
The practically total absence of species of the Eastern United
States which are not found in the Floridian waters is astonish-
ing, and shows how insuperable is the barrier which the waters
of the Atlantic, arid of the Gulf stream particularly, offer to a
free migration or dispersion of the species. This, again, ap-
pears the more remarkable in the light of certain anomalies of
distribution which a critical examination of the species reveals,
and which had already in many cases been noted as a charac-
teristic of the West Indian fauna. Thus, the various species of
Triton, Yriton chlorostoma, T: tuberosum, T. cynocephalus and 7.
pileare, are all members of the fauna of the Pacific and Indian
oceans; Ranella cruentata crops up in the variety L. rhodostoma,
from Mauritius. Again, Epidromus concinnus, from the Philip-
pines, is represented in our collection by a number of individ-
uals which are absolutely undistinguishable, both in shell or-
namentation and color-markings, from the Pacific specimens,
90 THE BERMUDA ISLANDS.
while they differ somewhat from the closely related Epidromus
Swifti, from Antigua. A seemingly undescribed form of Col-
umbella (Anachis) is, so far as I have been. able to determine,
most nearly related to a species from New Caledonia, Anachis
plicaria ; Natica Marochinensis is a member of the faunas of both
Western Africa and the Pacific, and Natica lactea is apparently
undistinguishable from WN. Flamingiana, from the Viti (Feejee)
Islands, Philippines, etc. whence we have also the Arca imbricata.
A number of forms common to the west coast of Africa and to
the southern waters of Europe also occur, but these appear to
be less numerous than the forms which occur in the Pacific’
and Indian oceans. Seemingly but few of the Bermudian
species are found in the Azores (Purpura hemastoma, Neritina
viridis, Avicula Atlantica, Pinna rudis), a somewhat surprising
circumstance in view of the large representation of Pacific forms,
and considering that the Azores lie directly in the path of the
heated waters of the Gulf Stream. It is, indeed, difficult to
account for these anomalies of distribution, and for still more
marked ones, as we shall presently see, which are presented by
the Crustacea.
Of molluscan forms which have been hitherto considered
to be restricted to the west coast of America, I can state the
positive occurrence of only two or three species—Chama
exogyra, Tellina Gouldii, from the Californian coast. In the
case of both of these forms I have very carefully satisfied my-
self as to absolute identity. Arca solida, from the west coast,
does not appear to differ measurably from Arca Adamsi,
a West Indian form which has its representative in the Ber-
mudian fauna. I feel satisfied that many more forms are
common to the east aud west coasts of America than is
generally assumed to be the case.
There appears to have been no systematic determination of
the Bermudian Crustacea prior to our visit to the islands.
The collections made by us are not extensive, but probably a
full half of the species which they contain are now for the
first time recorded from the archipelago. By far the greater
RELATIONSHIP OF THE FAUNA. 91
number of species—indeed, nearly all of them—are, as would
be naturally expected, forms which belong to tropical or sub-
tropical America (Florida, West Indies, Brazil). None of the
species, as far as they have been determined—the Isopoda and
Amphipoda still await examination—are peculiar to the Ber-
mudas, excepting possibly Scyllarus sculptus. The. specimen
figured by Lamarck in the Encyclopédie, and subsequently de-
scribed by Milne-Edwards, seems to have been “without a
home,” nor have I been able to trace the species from the writ-
ings of later authors. I am, therefore, not in a position to say
whether the species is strictly Bermudian or not. ;
The remarkable fact connected with the Bermudian Crus-
tacea is the appearance of three species of Macrurans which
had hitherto been recorded only from the Pacific. These are
Palemonella tenwipes, described by Dana from the Sooloo Sea,
Palemon affinis, and Penus velutinus, the last a species also
first described by Dana. It is remarkable that the only
species of Paleemonella other than P. tenwipes is likewise an
inhabitant of the Sooloo Sea. I am wholly at a loss how to
account for the occurrence of these Pacific types at the Ber-
mudas; they may yet be discovered in some intermediate
region, and thereby lessen the difficulty in the problem, but
for the time being their presence must be considered a zoogeo-
graphical knot to be cut. The absence of the common Palamon
vulgaris, as well as of the principal crustaceans of the Eastern
United States, excepting the more southerly forms, is strik-
ingly noticeable. Alpheus avarus is a Eurafrican form ;
Pachygrapsus transversus has been noted also from Australia.
The insect fauna (including here also the spiders) of the Ber-
mudas is distinguished more by negative features than by
positive ones; it is eminently deficient. It is not yet known
in its full details, but sufficiently so to show that it is mainly a
combination of Neotropical (West Indian and South Ameri-
can) and Holarctic (North American) elements. And here we
are presented with the significant fact that the insects proper
92 THE BERMUDA ISLANDS.
or fliers are essentially forms common to temperate United
States, while the non-fliers or arachnids are more nearly trop-
ical or sub-tropical forms, or such as have required drift
material to transport them to their present habitation. The
former have evidently been carried across the interposing arm
of the sea in the manner of the rarer birds—i.e., through the
instrumentality of storms. Dr. P. R. Uhler, who has kindly
looked over our collections of Orthoptera, Neuroptera, etc., in-
forms us that strong winds blowing off the mainland of Mary-
land and Virginia carry countless numbers of nearly all kinds
of insects out over the ocean, and that those that are dropped
into the sea are “returned to the shores by the tides and piled
up in windrows along the beaches. Among these we have
often found the half-drowned dragon flies mixed in with the
thick piles of beetles, bugs, wasps, and flies which stretched
along the line of the retreating tide.” That many thus wind-
swept reach to distances at least as remote as the Bermudas
there can be no question.
We observed during our brief sojourn but four butterflies,
Danais archippus, Pyramis Atalanta, P. cardui, and Junonia ceenia,
all common forms of the United States, and these appear to be
nearly all the forms that are usually met with in the islands.
Three or four other species of day-fliers have been observed at
different times, but they are of such rare occurrence as to
barely constitute true elements of the Bermudian fauna. Our
beetles were limited to some five or six species, which Dr. Horn
has kindly determined for me to be Ligyrus tumulosus, L. gib-
bosus, Agonoderus lineola, Cicindela tortuosa, and Opatrinus
anthracinus, forms common to Cuba and the Southern United
States. A number of other species of Coleoptera have been
collected in the islands, but I am not aware that they have as
yet been carefully determined.
From the list of Orthoptera, Pseudoneuroptera, and Dermop-
tera which Dr. Uhler has prepared for me it will be seen that
they represent types which are included in the United States
fauna of the region between Cape Cod and Florida. Dr.
RELATIONSHIP OF THE FAUNA. 93
Uhler calls attention to the significant fact that two of the
Pseudoneuropters, Mesothemis longipennis and Lestes unguiculata,
are freshwater types, whose larval condition is dependent
upon the existence of fresh, or but mildly brackish, waters.
The Bermudian earwig (Labidura riparia—Forficula gigantea) is a
species recently introduced into the Eastern United States
from the Mediterranean region.
Prior to 1888 there were but six species of spiders recorded
from the Bermudas, of which three were described as peculiar
by Blackwall—Salticus diversus, Xysticus pallidus, and Epeira
gracilipes. To this number we now add eleven additional
forms, one of which, Lycosa Atlantica of Marx, proves to be
new. Dr. Marx, of Washington, has kindly determined all
of our forms, and his notes on species appear on another page.
The thirteen species which are not peculiar to the Bermudas
are the following :
Loxosceles rufescens, . W. Indies, Florida, Europe, Asia,
Africa, Madeira, Canaries, Cape
Verde Islands.
Heteropoda venatoria, . Cosmopolitan.
Filistata depressa, , Southern United States.
Uloborus Zosis, . 3 W. Indies, Florida, S. Amer., Africa,
Asia, S. Helena.
Nephila clavipes, . : 8S. United States, 8. and C. America.
Epeira caudata, . ; United States.
Epeira labyrinthea, . N. and 8. America (to Magellan), W.
Indies.
Theridium tepidariorum, America, Europe, Azores, 8. Helena.
Argyrodes nephile, . United States, Guiana, Peru.
Pholcus tipuloides, .. Samoa.
Dysdera crocata, . ; U. S., Europe, Azores, Canaries, 8.
Helena.
Menemerus Paykullit, . Cosmopolitan ?
Menemerus melanognathus, America, Europe, Africa, Canaries,
' Cape Verde L., S. Helena.
94 THE BERMUDA ISLANDS.
The remarkably broad and somewhat indiscriminate distri-
bution of most of these species shows almost beyond doubt
that they have been principally or largely transported through
the agencies of commerce. They, therefore, throw but little
light upon the subject of zoogeography, although it is interest-
ing to find that such a large number of forms can so readily
accommodate themselves to the varied conditions of climate, and
of the surroundings generally, which the different countries
present. The proportion of peculiar forms is greater than we
should have expected to find in a region which is in such fre-
quent communication with the mainland, and is supposed
to be of comparatively recent origin. But, as has already
been seen, there are good grounds for believing that the
islands are more ancient than they are generally considered
to be—or, at least, that their fauna is. Mr. Bollman has de-
termined four species of myriapods in our collections, one of
which, a Spirobolus, is apparently peculiar to the islands. Of
the remaining forms, as far as it has been possible to determine
from imperfect specimens, one of the species is from the
Azores, another from Europe, and the third from the United
States. Of course the number of species collected is not
sufficiently great to give positive values in the matter of
distribution.
Of the lower groups of animals, such as the sponges, corals,
and echinoderms, we have principally Antillean and Floridian
types represented. That this should be the case, more par-
ticularly with the reef-building corals, stands to reason. It is
less easy to account for the large number of peculiar or new
forms among the holothurians, unless it be on the assumption
of antiquity. But they may yet be discovered elsewhere, in
the West Indies, although if they existed in the Bahamas,
where we should naturally expect to look for them, they could
scarcely have failed to attract the eyes of the different natural-
ists who have from time to time visited the islands. They are
in the Bermudas about the most conspicuous objects on the
coral sands.
RELATIONSHIP OF THE FAUNA. 95
In summarizing the general features of the Bermudian
fauna as they have been passed in review in the preceding
pages the following broad conclusions and facts present them-
selves :
1. The Bermudian fauna is essentially a wind-drift and cur-
rent-drift fauna, whose elements have been received in prin-
cipal part from the United States and the West Indies. The
aquatic animals are overwhelmingly Antillean in character,
while the animals of the air—birds and insects—are as over-
whelmingly North American.
2. Some portion of the fauna appears to have been derived
(through the agency of the return Atlantic current) from the
west coast of Eurafrica (including the African Islands), or even
from the Azores, while probably but few forms, if any, were
given to those regions by the Bermudas.
3. The large proportion of peculiar forms among the terres-
trial Mollusca more particularly,and somewhat less soamong the
arachnids and echinoderms, renders it probable that this fauna
is in part of considerable antiquity, and that some of its ele-
ments have been developed from a fauna pre-existent in
the region when the present physical conditions had not yet
been established. This conclusion is supported by the fact
that the predecessor of a group of Pulmonata now peculiar to
the islands is found fossil or sub-fossil in the rock of these
islands.
4. Certain marked élements of the Bermudian fauna are of
a distinctively Pacific type—Mollusca, Crustacea—but it seems
impossible at the present time to explain this mixed relation-
ship.
5. The currental water which separates the United States
from the Bermudas proves a practically insuperable barrier to
the direct passage of marine animals from the one region to
96 THE BERMUDA ISLANDS.
the other ; hence, the forms of the Eastern United States, except
in so far as they may be also members of the southern fauna,
are almost entirely absent-from the Bermudas.
6. Most of the temperate-American element of the Ber-
mudian fauna owes its establishment on the islands to acci-
dental causes—storm-winds ; the tropical (Neotropical element)
is, on the other hand, the expression of slow but steady diffusion.
7. Neotropical elements largely preponderate in the perma-
nent or resident fauna of the islands.
8. An arm of the sea may be as insuperable a barrier to the
passage of marine animals as it would be to the animals of the
land; caution is hence necessary in the discussion of conti-
nental and oceanic changes or stability as affecting animal
distribution.
‘HUYOHS HLNOS AHL
Vi
ZOOLOGY OF THE BERMUDAS.
The following notes on the zoology of the Bermudas are
based on personal observations, and on collections made dur-
ing a brief sojourn on the islands during the past summer, in
company with a class of students from the Academy of Natural
Sciences. But little systematic work, other than that in the
departments of ornithology, ichthyology, and botany, had
hitherto been done in this remarkably interesting, and typi-
cally oceanic, island group, and it was thought that a more
critical survey might bring out facts of general interest to the
zoological student, and throw some additional light upon the
intricate subject of zoogeography. In the results obtained I
have not been disappointed. The exuberance of animal life
has yielded much that has proved to be new to the systematist,
while certain remarkable peculiarities in the distribution of a
number of well-known types of animals open up vistas in geo-
graphical distribution which appear to me at present to recede
into darkness, and, perhaps, tend to draw only more closely the
veil over this mysterious subject.
The specimens noted or described in the following pages
were largely obtained through dredgings, which were carried
on as well in the outer water as in the smaller interior sounds
and lagoons. As might have been anticipated the greatest
profusion of animal life was found on the edge of the growing
reef itself, the shoals surrounding the cluster of rocks on the
northern barrier known as the North Rock. The wealth of
forms occurring here almost transcends belief; unfortunately,
the limited time at our command and the state of the weather
98 THE BERMUDA ISLANDS.
prevented more than a cursory exammation of this locality,
which is made comfortable for collecting and wading during a
partial exposure above water of some three hours. All the
dredgings were confined to depths within 16 fathoms, which
also represents the greatest sounding made by us in the lagoons.
ACTINOZOA.
The true stone corals of the Bermudas are comprised, so far
as we now know, in some twenty-five species, the greater number
of which are represented by identical forms in the Bahaman or
West Indian seas. The genera thus far indicated are Oculina,
Mycedium, Astrea, Siderastrea, Porites, Isophyllia, Mxandrina,
aud Diploria. The genus Madrepora, one of the commonest of
the Bahaman and Floridian corals, appears to be absent. On
the south and east side of the island group the outer margin
of the growing reef, largely covered by a serpuline and ver-
metus growth, approaches to within a few hundred feet of the
shore, where it breaks the inflowing surf into a white crest.
Within the line of these breakers the depth of water is in
places as much as ten or twelve fathoms. The brain coral
(Diploria) and various gorgonians develop here in great profu-
sion, the huge yellow masses of the former appearing almost
everywhere at depths of from ten to twenty feet. Vast growtlis
of millepore also cover the shallower bottoms, presenting in
the ensemble a wonderful garden of animal development.
This profusion of coral growth is, however, surpassed on the
north side, where the reef recedes to a distance of some eight
or nine miles from the island-shores, enclosing an extensive
body of water whose depth is in general about eight or ten
fathoms, and more rarely twelve fathoms. Much the same
coral growth is indicated here as on the south side, the large
brain-corals preponderating by their masses. While, probably,
the greatest profusion of animal life is really met with on the
actual edge of the growing reef, this does not appear to be the
case with the corals themselves. At any rate, I was unable to
satisfy myself that there was any marked difference to be ob-
ZOOLOGY OF THE BERMUDAS. 99
served between the marginal growth and that which extends
gradually backward from the margin into deep water. In-
deed, as far as the brain-corals themselves are concerned, it
appeared to me that their largest masses were to be found
some distance within the bounding reef, and consequently be-
yond the breaking action of the surf. This condition is again
shown in the comparatively quiet and sheltered waters of Cas-
tle Harbor, where portions of the platform-bottom may be said
to constitute one almost connected mosaic of huge Diplorias.
In so far, therefore, the Bermudas differ from the greater num-
ber of coral islands, in which, as is commonly stated, there is
a marked deficiency in the coral growth within the bounding
area, and an equally marked luxuriance on the crest and outer
slope of the reef.
In most places the largest corals do not come nearer than a
foot or two feet of the surface of the water, the massive brain-
corals rarely appearing in water of less depth than five or six
feet. But in the shallows off the North Rock we found Porites
astreoides almost at the surface in low water, and just off
the entrance to Harrington Sound, on the north shore, Sideras-
trea galaxea was covered by only about two inches of water.
The borders of Harrington Sound are largely overgrown with
species of Isophyllia, which likewise approach to within a short
distance of the surface. In the greater depths of the Sound we
found only Oculina, down to ten fathoms, the dredge-net being
frequently caught and reversed by their ramose stems; beyond
ten fathoms the dredge usually came up empty.
The following species were obtained by us:
Mycedium fragile, Dana.
Two specimens. North Rock?
Oculina diffusa, Lamk.
Harrington Sound.
Oculina varicosa, Lesueur.
Harrington Sound.
Oculina pallens, Ehrenberg.
Harrington Sound.
100 THE BERMUDA ISLANDS.
I feel satisfied that this species is identical with the preced-
ing, the same stock bearing what might be considered to be
typical representatives of both forms.
The amount of variation in the disposition of the calyces, as
well as in their individual shape, is very great in this genus,
and I am by no means sure that two or three of the other forms
of Oculina here enumerated represent anything more than
varietal modifications. Pourtalés, in his illustrations of the
corals of the Florida reefs (Mem. Mus. Comp. Zoology, VII,
plates I and II) correctly refers, it seems to me, both types to a
single species (O. varicosa).
Oculina speciosa, Edwards and Haime.
Harrington Sound.
Oculina recta, Quelch.
One specimen, from Harrington Sound, which agrees in the
characters of the species from St. Thomas (Quelch, Challenger
Reports, Zoology, XVI, p. 51). The species does not appear
to have been hitherto observed in the Bermudian waters.
Oculina coronalis, Quelch.
Harrington Sound. First described from the Bermudas
(Challenger Reports, Zoology, XVI, p. 49.)
Quelch, in his report on the reef-building corals of the
Challenger (op. cit., pp. 9 and 49), enumerates as an additional
member of the Bermudian fauna the Oculina Bermudiana of
Duchassaing and Michelotti. I have been unable to find any-
thing in the description or figures furnished by these authors
(Supplément au Mémoire sur les Coralliaires des Antilles, p. 162,
pl. IX, figs. 1, 2—Memorie della Reale Accad. Seienze di Torino,
Ser. Sec., XXIII, 1866) to distinguish their species from
Oculina speciosa, nor doesit appear to me to be distinct. The
characters upon which the form is separated are exceedingly
trivial, and well within the amount of variability which is
presented by individual specimens of nearly all the species of
Oculina. I further believe that O. coronalis, and possibly also
O. recta, will have to be united with O. speciosa.
ZOOLOGY OF THE BERMUDAS. 101
Isophyllia australis? Edwards and Haime.
Three specimens from the North Rock, doubtfully indenti-
fied with this species.
Isophyllia fragilis? Dana.
Iam unable to satisfy myself as to the positive existence of
this species in Bermuda, although Quelch refers to a single
specimen having been obtained there by the Challenger party.
This authority doubtfully refers one of the forms figured by
Pourtalés (op. cit., pl. VII, fig. 3) as I. dipsacea to Dana’s
species, but from an examination of a number of Bermudian
specimens which agree absolutely with Pourtalés’s figure I am
fairly convinced that this identification is incorrect. The
specimens do certainly not agree sufficiently with Dana’s de-
scription, and if they are not the types of a distinct species,
then they represent probably only a certain phase of develop-
ment of I. dipsacea, as is indicated by Pourtalés.
Isophyllia dipsacea, Dana.
Three specimens, from Castle Harbor.
Isophyllia strigosa, Duchassaing and Michelotti
A number of specimens, from Harrington Sound, which
agree with the description of this species. I am doubtful as
to the species being distinct from Isophyllia dipsacea; possibly,
however, some of the varieties (so-called) of the latter species
figured by Pourtalés are really members of this species. Its
principal distinguishing characters appear to be the thinner
and more irregular septa, and the terminal cleft that indents
or separates the septa of opposing calyces where they cross the
common wall. It also presents a more bristling appearance
than I. dipsacea.
Isophyllia Guadeloupensis, Portalés.
One specimen. This appears to be a good species, although
by Quelch it is referred to Isophyllia strigosa.
In addition to these forms Quelch enumerates Jsophyllia
(Symphyllia) marginata, I. cylindrica, and I. Knoxi, all of
Duchassaing and Michelotti, as having been obtained at the
102 THE BERMUDA ISLANDS.
Bermudas, but I have failed to detect any specimens among
our collections which can be confidently referred to these
species. On the other hand, I find one or two forms which I
have not yet been able to identify with any described forms.
Siderastrea galaxea, Ellis and Solander.
Abundant on the shoals of Gallows Island, near the mouth
of Flatts Inlet, where the colonies come to within about two
inches of the surface; also on the borders of Harrington Sound.
Porites clavaria, Lamk.
Two specimens, dredged in Harrington Sound.
Porites astreaides, Lamk.
We found this species very abundantly along the outer reef,
especially on the flats of the North Rock, where it is the domi-
nant form of coral. The species appears to have been over-
looked by the Challenger party, and indeed, the only reference
that I have been able to find indicating the occurrence of this
common West Indian form among the Bermudas is contained
in Mr. Rathbun’s list of the species of Porites in the United
States National Museum (Proc. U.S. National Museum, 1887,
p. 354).
Meandrina labyrinthica, Ellis and Solander.
Three specimens, from the North Rock.
Meandrina strigosa, Dana.
This form is represented by large, sub-globose specimens,
one of which, obtained through purchase, and probably from
Castle Harbor, has an exceedingly attenuated base of attach-
ment. The corallum is thus openly turbinate, or even pedicu-
late, and exhibits in its regular scalariform outline the succes-
sive stages of outward development.
Diploria cerebriformis, Lamk.
This species is exceedingly abundant in the shoals lying to
the leeward of the marginal reef, where its huge hemispheri-
cal or reniform masses of bright orange, measuring as much
as four or five feet in diameter, can be distinctly seen through
ZOOLOGY OF THE BERMUDAS. 103
the transparent waters at depths of from six to fifteen or
twenty feet. I cannot say how much further down the species
extends. It is equally abundant in Castle Harbor, where it is
largely instrumental in building out the shore-platform which,
at a moderate distance from the shore, descends vertically into
deeper water. When attached by a contracted base, the brain-
coral may be readily removed from its moorings; but where
the base is largely coextensive with the under-surface of the
corallum the difficulties of removal are very great, necessitat-
ing much undercutting with a chisel. The largest specimen
obtained by us measured about 28 inches across; our efforts to
dislodge a specimen about four feet in diameter proved un-
successful.
Diploria Stokesi, Edwards and Haime.
We obtained a number of specimens of this species in Castle
Harbor, and through presentation ; for the latter my thanks
are due to Miss A. Peniston, of Peniston’s. The habitat of the
species, as far as I am aware, has not hitherto been noted.
Edwards and Haime in their description of the species (Hist.
Nat. des Coralliaires, II, p. 408, pl. D, fig. 3) state “ Patrie incon-
nue.” I believe it may be assumed that this species is the
form described and figured by Knorr as Madrepora labyrinthi-
formis (Delicitz Naturzx Selcectx, I, p. 18, Pl. A 4, fig. 1). In our
collections we have a closely related, and possibly identical,
species, which assumes a ring form, and in which the peculiar
calycular hollows of D. Stokesi run out into parallel transverse
grooves on the inner side of the ring.
ALCYONARIA.
The gorgonians are abundant in the waters inside of the
bounding reef, whence nearly all our specimens were obtained.
A few were nipped up on the south side of Castle Harbor, and
at the passage way conducting from the north into that body
of water.
Rhipidogorgia flabellum, Valenciennes,
The purple variety of this species is abundant more par-
ticularly in the northern waters, both near the outer reef and
104 THE BERMUDA ISLANDS.
on the shallows known as Devonshire Flats. We failed to
obtain any of the yellow forms, and I am not positive that
this variety has ever been found at the Bermudas.
Gorgonia (Plexaura) purpurea, Pallas.
Gorgonia (Plexaura) flexuosa, Lamouroux.
This species, of which we obtained several specimens, is, I
believe, without doubt the Gorgonia anguiculus of Dana (U.S.
Exploring Expedition, Zoophytes, p. 668). It is referred to
under Lamouroux’s name as a member of the Bermudian
fauna in Dana’s “Corals and Coral Islands,” p. 114, 1872. -
Gorgonia (Plexaura) homomalla, Esper.
Gorgonia (Plexaura) multicauda, Lam.
Gorgonia crassa, Ellis and Solander.
G. vermiculata, Edwards and Haime.
The exact limitations and synonymy of this species are
difficult to make out, but as far as my studies have permitted
_me to analyze the forms above indicated from the rather in-
sufficient or deficient descriptions that have been furnished by
their authors, they appear to represent an identical form.
As such I have accordingly referred them in this list.
Gorgonia (Plexaura) dichotoma, Esper.
A single specimen, measuring about a foot and three-quar-
ters in height, with the main stems somewhat over a half-inch
in diameter.
Gorgonia (Eunicea) pseudo-antipathes, Lam.
One much branched specimen, and another, slightly differing,
which appears to belong to the same species.
Pterogorgia acerosa, (?) Pallas.
A single specimen of a large Pterogorgia, entirely stripped
of ceenenchyma, and measuring about two and a-half feet in
height, was obtained through purchase at the Crawl. The
axial skeleton is yellowish, or of the color of earth. The
terete branches are much more broadly spreading than in P.
setosa, and unite into a common basal stalk which is upwards
of two inches in thickness. The pinnules are very numerous,
ZOOLOGY OF THE BERMUDAS. 105
exceedingly slender, and pendulous, giving to the whole
organism the decided appearance of a weeping-willow.
I have not been able to satisfy myself as to the exact
affinities of this species. It appears to differ broadly from the
common purple sea-feather of the West Indies, and does not
have the depressed branches which are assumed for Esper’s
Pterogorgia acerosa. It is, however, with little doubt one of the
forms that are included by Pallas in his Gorgonia acerosa
(Quercus marina Theophrasti), and may be the one that is
referred to by Milne-Edwards as Pterogorgia Sloanei.
Of the species of gorgonians above enumerated Dana indi-
cates Rhipidogorgia flabellum, Gorgonia fleruosa, G. homomalla,
and G. crassa as coming from the Bermudas (“Corals and
Coral Islands,” p. 114). I find no mention in any more recent
work of the occurrence there of either Gorgonia pseudo-anti-
pathes or G. dichotoma. On the other hand, we failed to obtain
the Pterogorgia Americana mentioned by Dana.
ACTINIARIA.
For the following contribution to the “ Actinology of the Ber-
mudas” I am indebted to Prof. J. Playfair McMurrich, who
has carefully examined and studied all the specimens contained
in our collection. These were not very numerous, but still
sufficiently so to present a number of interesting points in
special morphology and geographical distribution. The ob-
servations here recorded have appeared in advance in the Pro-
ceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia.
THE ACTINOLOGY OF THE BERMUDAS.
BY
PROF, J. PLAYFAIR MCMURRICH.
I recently received from Professor Heilprin a number of
actinians which he had collected in the summer of 1888, dur-
ing a visit to the Bermuda Islands. They were entrusted to
me for identification and study, and I gladly availed myself of
106 THE BERMUDA ISLANDS.
the opportunity thus afforded of comparing the actinian fauna
of the Bermudas with that of the Bahamas, which I had pre-
viously studied.* I may state here that, so far as can be
judged from the material studied, there is very great similarity
between the two faunas, most of the species from the Bermudas
occurring also either in the Bahamas or in the West Indian
Islands. Unfortunately, it was impossible to adopt the best
methods of preserving the material obtained in the Bermudas,
the expedition to the islands having been undertaken mainly
for geological purposes, and consequently the specific relation-
ships of some of the forms could not be determined with per-
fect certainty. :
SAGARTIDA,
Aiptasia. sp? (PI. 10, figs. 1 and 2.)
In the collection were four specimens of a form which I re-
fer to the genus Aiptasia, inasmuch as in the majority of
respects they resemble forms of that genus, although it was
impossible to ascertain the presence of an equatorial row of
cinclides owing to the ectoderm having béen almost completely
macerated away. Nematocysts were -quite abundant in the
macerated substance ¢ontained in the inter- and intra-mesen-
terial, chambers, but it was not possible to be certain that they
belonged to acontia, though such was probably the case.
The specimens were about 1 cm. in-length and 0.65 em. in
diameter. The color, as ascertainéd-from the alcoholic ma-
terial, is in the upper one-third of the column and in the ten-
tacles grass-green, while the rest of the column presents the
dirty grayish-brown color frequent in alcoholic specimens.
About one-third of the way down the column each specimen
presents a well marked constriction, below which the column
is cylindrical, while above it gradually expands, the disc not
being at all infolded in contraction. The base is evidently
adherent, but in two of the specimens it is much smaller than
*See Journal of Morphology, vol. iii. This paper is now in print and will
shortly appear.
ZOOLOGY OF THE BERMUDAS. 107
the column, and is almost covered by the infolding of the column
walls over it; this apparently, however, is an abnormal condi-
tion. The column is smooth, and no traces of cinclides could
be seen as stated above. Sections (Pl. 10, fig. 2) show that
the mesogloea is thin throughout, and that the circular muscles
(em) are only feebly developed. There is a special sphincter
(sp) imbedded in the mesoglea, immediately below the margin,
and, though not very powerful, is yet quite apparent. The
only species of Aiptasia in which such a sphincter has been ob-
served as yet is A. pallida of our Eastern coast. Immediately
below this the mesogleal muscular processes which support
the circular muscles are weak, but further down they enlarge
gradually and form a second sphincter (sp’) similar to what
has been described by R. Hertwig* in Leiotealia nymphea. It
is to the presence of this lower sphincter that the contraction
of the column mentioned above is due.
The tentacles are 48 in number and are arranged in four
cycles. They are strongly entacmeous, and are not infolded
during contraction. Those of the first cycle measure 1.1 cm.,
and those of the outermost cycle 0.3 cm. The ectodermal and
endodermal muscular processes ‘are present, but do not call for
a special description. The disc is flat and the stomatodzeum is
without well-marked gonidial angles; sections show that the
grooves are hardly developed.
The mesenteries are in four cycles. The six pairs of the first
cycle are alone perfect; those of the second cycle are shorter
but provided with well-developed longitudinal muscles, while
neither those of the third nor those of the fourth cycle
have the longitudinal muscles, the members of the latter cycle
not projecting above the surface of the endoderm. The parieto-
basilar muscles seem to be wanting, or at least have no marked
mesogleeal processes. The reproductive organs are borne by the
mesenteries of the second cycle, and also by those of the first
eycle (except by the directives) below the internal opening of
*R. Hertwig—Report on the Actiniaria. Zoology of the Voyage of H. M.S.
Challenger. Vol. vi. Pt. xv. 1882.
108 THE BERMUDA ISLANDS.
the stomatodeum. This is the only Sagartid, with the excep-
tion of A. pallida, in which I have observed reproductive organs
on the mesenteries of the first cycle, aud it is a case of consider-
able importance inasmuch as it necessitates an alteration in
the definition of the family Sagartide as given by R. Hertwig.*
One of the essentials of the family is that “the principal septa,
or septa of the first order, only are perfect aud at the same
time sterile.” The last portion of this statement, though true
for the majority of Sagartide, fails in the ease of the Aiptasiz
mentioned. It is not possible to separate Aiptasia from the
Sagartide ; the members of the genus possess acontia, cinclides,
the primary mesenteries alone perfect, and a mesodermal mus-
cle in some cases, and these must be considered as the chief
characteristics of the family.
As regards the species to which the form under consideration
belongs, the probabilities are that it is identical with A. pallida
of our Eastern coast, since in its anatomical peculiarities it
agrees very closely with that form. The impossibility however
of ascertaining the coloration, and what is of much more im-
portance, the occurrence and arrangement of the cinclides,
has prevented a certain identification, and I have preferred to
leave the species in doubt. :
ANTHEADZ:.
Condylactis passiflora. Duch. and Mich. (Plate 10, fig. 3.)
Several specimens were obtained of a large form, measuring
3.3-2.3 cm. in height and 2.6-3.8 em. in diameter when pre-
served, which resembled in coloration, external characters, and
for the most part in internal structure also, the West Indian
form Condylactis passiflora. In the alcoholic specimens the col-
umn. is of a brick-red color wherever the ectoderm has been
preserved, and the tentacles are grass-green, this color evi-
dently being due to the enormous number of zooxanthellae
contained in the endoderm. Professor Heilprin informs me to
the best of his recollection the tentacles in the living specimens
* Loc. ctt.
ZOOLOGY OF THE BERMUDAS. 109
were as a rule tipped with crimson. In a separate bottle is a
single specimen evidently identical with the others, and accom-
panying it is a note stating that the column was red and the
tentacles brown. This specimen was found freely floating near
the surface, but had evidently become detached, as its base
shows that normally it is an attached form.
The ectodern having been macerated away, the outer surface
of the mesoglea is exposed to view, and is seen to be divided
by fine longitudinal and transverse grooves into small quad-
rangular areas. These grooves are continued over the limbus
upon the surface of the base, the longitudinal grooves there
becoming radiating and the transverse ones concentric.
The only character which is markedly different from what
occurs in the West Indian specimens of the species is presented
by the longitudinal muscles of the mesenteries. The middle
portion of a section through the muscle-band presents an
appearance quite similar to that seen in the West Indian
form, and the internal edge is also the same, the long meso-
gleal processes terminating abruptly, and being followed by
smaller processes which extend to the commencement of the
reproductive region of the mesentery; but toward the inser-
tion of the mesenteries into the column wall the arrangement
is slightly different (PI. 10, fig. 3). In the Bahama specimens
the mesoglea between the outer edge of the muscle-band and
the insertion of the mesentery into the column wall is thin,
and the muscle-band gradually thins out externally. In the
Bermuda forms, however, the longitudinal muscle begins ab-
ruptly, and the mesoglea external to it is thick, with short,
stout muscle processes; or, as in the directives, with the
muscle cells, instead of appearing to cover processes, present-
ing rather the appearance of here and there dipping down
slightly into the mesoglcea.
It is not probable, however, that this slight difference is to
be regarded as specific, and since in other respects there is
almost exact correspondence, the Bermuda forms must be con-
sidered identical with those from the Bahamas.
110 THE BERMUDA ISLANDS.
PHYLLACTIDA.
Some points of considerable iniportance as regards the char-
acteristic structure of the members of this family have been ob-
tained from the study of the two forms which I include here
within it. The family was established by Andres* for forms in
which the dise is furnished towards the center with simple
tentacles and towards the periphery with foliaceous frouds. In
one of the forms about to be described the fronds are replaced
by short digitiform tentacles arranged in a single cycle, but
nevertheless it agrees in other structural points with Oulactis,
and I have therefore found it necessary to alter the definition
of the family, placing importance on internal anatomical
structures rather than upon external characteristics.
In the first place, in the Oulactis about to be described, and
in Diplactis, as I propose to name the genus to which the form
with tentacles replacing the fronds will be referred, a sphinc-
ter of the diffuse type is present, but instead of being situated
upon the column wall below the margin, it occurs internal to
the margin, between the inner tentacles and the peripheral
fronds or tentacles. In O. flosculifera from the Bahamas this
sphincter was not observed, but was probably overlooked in
the single specimen I obtained for study, and none of the prep-
arations which I still possess include the region in which the
sphincter should occur. Secondly, in the two species of
Oulactis which I have studied, and in the Diplactis, the gonidial
grooves are very deep, and are prolonged a considerable dis-
tance below the inner margin of the stomatodzum ; the histo-
logical structure also of the ectoderm lining the grooves differs
slightly from that of the general surface of the stomatodeeum,
it is not thrown into folds as it is elsewhere, and the mesoglea
of the grooves is thickened.
I would define the family Phyllactide as follows :—Actininz
in which the disc is furnished with simple tentacles towards
the center and with a cycle of short digitiform tentacles or
*A. Andres. Le Attinie. Fauna und Flora des Golfes von Neapel, Mono-
graphie ix. 1883.
ZOOLOGY OF THE BERMUDAS. 111
more or less foliaceous fronds towards the periphery ; a sphinc-
ter of the diffuse type occurs upon the inner surface of the
dise between the inner tentacles and the outer tentacles or
fronds ; and the stomatodeum is provided with two deep gonid-
ial grooves, which are prolonged some distance below the
inner extremity of the stomatodeum.
The family Phyllactide was placed by Andres in the sub-
order (family) Stichodactyline, the fronds being considered
homologous with tentacles. I have here ventured to remove
the family to the sub-order Actinine, and it will be necessary
to furnish my reasons for such a change. The tentacles must
necessarily be considered outgrowths of the disc, since struct-
urally they resemble it closely while differing greatly from
the column. Are the fronds also disc structures?
The question turns upon what we shall consider to be the
limit between the disc and the column. The majority of
authors have taken a more or less distinct fold of the body
wall, the margin, frequently furnished with conspicuous
acrorhagi, to be the boundary, and certainly in many cases
there seems to be a marked difference on either side of this
fold. Thus, the column may, as in Bunodes and Phymactis, be
turberculated as far as the margin, but beyond this the tuber-
cles cease, and there is apparently a decided difference between
the region below and that above the limiting fold.
In the Sagartide and Paractide there is imbedded in the
column wall below the margin a sphincter muscle. In other
forms, however, such as the Bunodide, which possess a circum-
scribed endodermal sphincter, that structure lies internal to the
margin. If we assume with the Hertwigs that the sphincter
is a columnar structure, its situation in the Bunodide would
indicate that the margin is not the boundary between the disc
and column.
Neither the margin nor the sphincter, however, can be con-
sidered the morphological boundary of the dise, since both seem
to vary somewhat in position. The true criterion is to be found
in the difference of histological structure presented by the disc
112 THE BERMUDA ISLANDS.
and column ectoderm. This layer in the disc possesses ecto-
dermal muscle-cells and a nerve-layer, which structures are
absent in the column. The tentacles resembling the disc in
structure are to be considered outgrowths of that region, and
passing outward from these one finds that the characteristic
structures of the dise gradually fade out and are lost. It is
impossible to say just where the change is completed, but the
region in which it occurs must be considered the boundary be-
tween the discand column. In Bunodesteniatus and Aulactinia
stelloides I find that the sphincter muscles lie beneath the outer
border of this indifferent region, and are consequently to be re-
garded as columnar structures.
In the Phyllactide the sphincter muscle lies between the
tentacles and the fronds, and although the ectoderm in the re-
gion in which it occurred, and in the area between the fronds
or their representatives and the margin was completely mac-
erated away in the forms studied, yet reasoning from the rela-
tions of the sphincter in other forms we must conclude that the
region between the margin and the base of the tentacles is
columnar, aud that the fronds and: outer digitiform tentacles
are column structures, perhaps comparable to acrorhagi, and
cannot be considered homologous with tentacles. Accordingly,
only one tentacle belongs to each intra-mesenterial space, and
the Phyllactide must be referred to the sub-order Actinine.
Andres, in the introduction to his Monograph, notes the fact
that the margin does not always mark the boundary between
the disc and the column. He proposes the term “collar” to
denote the portion of the column internal to the margin.
Gosse’s term “fosse” is not applicable in all cases, as for in-
stance in Coniylactis, where the region does not form a depres-
sion, but is horizontal.
Oulactis fasciculata. n.sp. (Pl. 10, fig. 5.)
By this name I denote three specimens in various degrees of
contraction, the largest of which measured about 1 em. in
height and 1-2 cm.in breadth. The color, as ascertained from
alcoholic specimens, is in the lower part of the eolumn a gray-
ZOOLOGY OF THE BERMUDAS. 118
ish-brown, similar to what is frequently seen in preserved
Actinine, while the upper part of the column and the fronds
are of a grass-green, the tentacles resembling somewhat the
lower part of the column, but having a distinctly greenish tinge.
The column is provided in its upper part with about 48 ver-
tical series of tubercles, probably verrucae, there being about
five or six in each series, and is thrown into numerous trans-
verse folds, the result of contraction. The mesoglea, when
exposed, appears to be raised into numerous minute elevations,
whereby the surface acquires a finely punctured appearance.
The tentacles are moderately long, simple and pointed at the
extremity. They appear to be arranged in two cycles, and
from a necessarily uncertain count I estimate their number to
be about forty-eight. Their ectodermal longitudinal muscle
layer is well developed, being arranged on long slender
mesoglceal processes. The fronds (PI. 10, fig. 5, fr.) are small,
yet occupy the entire width of the area between the tentacles
and the apparent margin. They consist of hollow evagina-
tions of the disc, arranged in bunches. I could not determine
with certainty their number in any of thespecimens, but there
are probably twenty-four of them in all. A well-defined mar-
gin is present.
Immediately external to the bases of the tentacles, and lying
between them and the fronds there is an endodermal sphincter
(sp) fairly well developed. Immediately external to it, in the
region occupied by the fronds, and for a slight distance down
the column-wall below the margin, there are no muscle proc-
esses, but further down they do occur, forming what might be
termed a second sphincter, though it is by no means well
developed. The surface of the disc between the tentacles and
the mouth is deeply depressed, so that a fosse is formed around
the peristome. ‘The mouth is large. Sections show that over
the general surface of the stomatodeum the mesoglcea is very
thin, and upon the ectodermal surface gives rise to numerous
more or less regularly arranged fine processes, over which the
ectoderm passes so as to be thrown into numerous folds. The
114 THE BERMUDA ISLANDS.
gonidial grooves are deep, and are prolonged some distance
below the rest of the stomatodeum. Its mesoglea is much
thickened, and is devoid of processes upon its ectodermal sur-
face, being thus strongly contrasted with that of the stomato-
deum. In its histology the ectoderm of the groove also differs
from that of the general stomatodeum, the glandular cells
being evidently fewer in number, but the preservation of the
specimens was not sufficiently perfect to permit the details to
be made out.
There are altogether twenty-four pairs of mesenteries, twelve
of which are perfect. The six primary pairs are united with
the stomatedeum toa greater extent than are the six secon-
daries, and the two pairs of directives have a much more ex-
tensive union than any of the other primary mesenteries,
owing to the great prolongation of the gonidial grooves. The
longitudinal muscle processés form a strongly projecting
though rather narrow band, the edges of which are sharply
defined, the processes being of equal length throughout the
muscular area, and diminishing abruptly towards the sides.
The mesoglea of the portion of the mesenteries external to
the muscle bands is rather thick, and there is a strong parieto-
basilar muscle. Apparently only the mesenteries of the third
cycle, i.e. the imperfect mesenteries, are gonophoric, but my
preparations do not allow of certainty on this point.
A few remarks are called for concerning the relationship of
this species. I was at first tempted to identify it with O.
formosa,* but further consideration led me to separate it as a new
species. The fronds differ markedly from those of other
species of Oulactis. In these they have been described as
being “chicoracés,” a term which cannot be applied to the
fronds of O. fasciculata. In it they consist of bunches of finger
or club-shaped hollow processes, the various processes of each
bunch being united by their base but distinct above. This
arrangement suggested the specific term which I have em-
*Duchassaing and Micheloiti—Alem. Neale Accademia di Torino. 2nd Ser.
xix, 1860, and xxiii, 1866.
ZOOLOGY OF THE BERMUDAS. 115
ployed, and I think is of sufficient importance to warrant the
formation of a new species. It was a question whether a new
genus should be instituted, as Verrill' has done in the case of
Lophactis ornata, but there is such close agreement with the
Bahaman 0. flosculifera as regards the internal structure, the
number of perfect mesenteries, and the distribution upon the
mesenteries of the reproductive organs, that such a proceeding
was considered unnecessary. It seems probable that the genus
Lophactis should be fused with Oulactis.
DIPLACTIS. Gen. nov.
I propose this generic name for two species, one of which is
described below, which do not seem to be referable to any of
the genera now recognized. The genus may be briefly defined
as follows :—Phyllactidie in which the fronds are represented
by a single cycle of short digitiform tentacles and in which all
the mesenterics except those of the first cycle are gonophoric.
The term Diplactis has been chosen as indicating the tentacular
appearance of the fronds, from which it seems as if there
were two series of tentacles, an inner and an outer (diplous,
double, and ahtis, a ray).
In the Supplementary Report on the Actiniaria collected by
the “ Challenger,” R. Hertwig decribes a form whose locality
is unknown, which he refers to Gosse’s genus Hormathia. It is
very similar to the form about to be described from the Ber-
mudas, and there can be no doubt that though specifically
distinct the two must be referred to the same genus. Gosse’s
Hormathia’ was described from a single specimen brought up
on a deep-sea fishing line, and attached to the shell of a living
Fusus. It was characterized by possessing slightly below the
margin about ten spherical protrusions. I do not think it is
possible to associate in the same genus with this either the
Bermuda Diplactis or Hertwig’s Hormathia. In the first place
in both these forms the bodies near the margin are digitiform
and not spherical; and secondly, these bodies are situated not
1 Verrill,—Trans. Conn. Acad. Vol. i, 1868.
2 P. H. Gosse. “ Actinologia Britannica.” London. 1860.
116 THE BERMUDA ISLANDS.
below the margin, but internal to it. In all the Bermuda speci-
mens, of which there are quite a large number, a well-marked
margin is present and Hertwig describes in his form a fold of the
column-wall which must be considered equivalent to the mar-
gin of the other species. Although the margin cannot be con-
sidered of importance as marking the boundary of the disc,
yet it is a structure of frequent occurrence and must be taken
account of. Structures that occur on the column-wall below
it, as in Hormathia, cannot be considered identical for syste-
matic purposes with others which invariably lie above or
internal to it, and are not quite similar in form.
It must be noticed that Haddon has recently referred to
Gosse’s Hormathia a form* altogether different from that as-
signed to it by Hertwig. The correctness of Haddon’s iden-
tification is quite as doubtful as Hertwig’s, if not a little more
so. The form is certainly a Sagartid, and probably a Phellia,
it being stated that it is very similar to Hertwig’s Phellia
pectinata.
Hertwig refers his Diplactis (Hormathia) delicatula to the fam-
ily Antheadx, on account of the diffuse endodermal nature of
sphincter. The situation of the mus7le aud other characters
make it evident that Diplactis should be associated in the same
family with Oulactis. In the Phyllactide as here limited we
have several grades of complication of the fronds. In Diplactis
their structure is exceedingly simple, being simply digitiform
in D. Bermudensis and club-shaped in D. delicatula. In O. fasci-
culata they are somewhat more complicated, and from this the
passage is easy to Verrill’s O. (Lophactis) ornata, and from this
to the very complicated structure seen in O. flosculifera.
Diplactis Bermudensis. n.sp. (PI. 10, figs. 4 and 6, Pl. 11, figs. 1 and 2.)
A number of specimens of.the form for which I propose this
name were obtained. The majority were in a partially con-
tracted condition, but apparently the power of contraction is
not fully developed, as in none were the tentacles completely
* A. C, Haddon —On two species of Actiniz from the Mergui Archipelago.—
Journ. Linn, Soc. Vol. XXL. 1888. °
ZOOLOGY OF THE BERMUDAS. 117
concealed. The average height of the specimens is about 1°5
em. and the breadth nearly the same, and thus D. Bermudensis
is decidedly smaller than D. delicatula. The ectoderm has been
almost entirely macerated away, so that the external surface of
the mesoglea is exposed to view. This presents numerous
transverse folds due to contraction, but in addition fine linear
depressed strize are present, both horizontal and longitudinal,
dividing the surface into numerous rows of small quadrangu-
lar elevations visible to the unaided eye. The color through-
out is a dirty-green.
The base is adherent, flat, and about the same size as the
column. It is marked by radiating and concentric strie, con-
tinuations of the longitudinal and horizontal strie respectively
of the column. No verruce or tubercles occur on the column,
though the quadrangular areas produced by the striew are
slightly more prominent toward the margin. This is well
marked and smooth, and is separated from the tentacles by a
deep fosse (collar), near the bottom of which are about 12 short
digitiform fronds about 1 mm.in height. (PI. 10, fig. 4p, and
Pi. 11, fee 2)
Between these fronds and the tentacles there is upon the
endodermal surface of the collar a sphincter (PI. 10, fig. 4, sp)
of the diffuse type, which differs markedly from that of D.
delicatula, the mesoglceal processes being much more delicate,
and anastomosing somewhat in their proximal portions (PI.
11, fig. 2). The circular muscles of the column wall external
to the digitiform fronds are fairly prominent, and are con-
tinued the entire way down the column, not enlarging however
to form a second sphincter.
The tentacles are simple, conical, and of votlenats length,
and are arranged in four cycles, theie number being probably
96. By actual count they seemed to vary somewhat, usually
falling below that number, but the discrepancies are probably
due to the difficulty of making a correct enumeration. They
possess well-developed mesoglcal processes for the support
of the ectodermal muscles. ‘The disc is deeply folded in, in-
118 THE BERMUDA ISLANDS.
ternal to the tentacles, so as to form a deep fosse around the
peristome (Pl. 11, fig. 1), which, however, does not rise above
the level of the margin. I was not able to distinguish in any
of my preparations the delicate mesoglceal processes of the disc
which support the ectodermal muscle cells in D. delicotula, but
it is possible that they had been macerated away.
The mesogloea of the stomatodeum is raised upon its ecto-
dermal surface into prominent but rather delicate ridges, over
which the ectoderm is folded. The gonidial grooves are deep,
and as in Oulactis are prolonged below the level of the internal
opening of the stomatodeum, and have the mesoglcea thick-
ened. In D. delicatula Hertwig describes the gonidial grooves
as being hardly marked in the stomatodeeum, and if this is
found to be an invariable characteristic, it will be necessary to
alter slightly the definition of the Phyllactide given above.
The depth of the grooves, and their prolongation downwards,
are somarked in the other members of the group that I have
examined, as to suggest that the apparent shallowness in the
specimen examined by Hertwig may be due to distortion.
The primary and secondary mesenteries are perfect through-
out the whole length of the stomatodeeum ; the tertiaries are
perfect in their upper part, but lower down separate froin the
stomatodeeum ; while the fourth cycle consists entirely of im-
perfect mesenteries. The directives are attached throughout
a greater part of their length than are any of the other mesen-
teries, owing to the prolongation of the gonidial grooves. The
longitudinal muscles in the upper portion of the mesenteries
form a low band, covering the greater portion of the non-gono-
phoric region of the mesentery ; internally the muscle processes
end rather abruptly, but externally they gradually diminish
in size. In the lower part of the mesentery, below the level of
the stomatodeum, the arrangement of the muscle processes is
very different (PI. 10, fig. 6). Throughout the greater portion
of the non-gonophoric region of the mesentery they are very
small, but as the gonophoric region is approached they sud-
denly increase in size, forming a strong projection, and then
ZOOLOGY OF THE BERMUDAS. 119
just as suddenly diminish again, the projection being of slight
extent. The parieto-basilar muscles are well developed and
form conspicuous folds. Both external and internal mesen-
terial stomata are present (PI. II, fig. 1). All the mesenteries
with the exception of those of the first cycle are gonophoric.
The differences between D. Bermudensis and D. delicatula
may be briefly enumerated as follows:
D. Bermudensis. D. Delicatula.
Tentacles 96. Tentacles 160.
Fronds digitiform, about 12 in Fronds dilated at the ex-
number. tremity, about 42 in number.
Mesogleeal processes of sphinc- Mesoglceal processes of
ter muscle rather delicate, sphincter stout, not anas-
anastomosing slightly. tomosing.
Ectodermal muscle processes of Ectodermal muscle processes
disc wanting (?) of dise long and delicate.
PHYMANTHIDA.
Phymanthus crucifer. (Les.) Andres.
A single specimen of this species was obtained. I have
nothing to add to the statements already made regarding it in
my paper on the Bahama Actiniaria.
ZOANTHIDZ.
Zoanthus flos-marinus. Duch. and Mich. (PI. 1, figs. 3 and 4.)
A large number of specimens of this species were obtained,
and inclosed with them was a label stating that they were col-
lected at Shelly Bay and Tucker’s Town. In general appearance
they resemble Z. sociatus from the Bahamas, the individuals as
in that species forming stolon-like prolongations from which
new individuals bud ; their structure, however, shows them to
belong to a different species. The colonies are, according to
the accompanying label, 4 to 5 cm. in breadth. The indi-
vidual polyps in the preserved condition measure 1-2 cm. in
height, and in breadth at the upper end 0-5 cm. the lower
portion and stolons measuring about 0.25 cm. All are strongly
contracted, a small depression being the only indication of
120 THE BERMUDA ISLANDS.
where the entrance into the interior is situated. The color,
according to the inclosed label, was “spinach-green,” but this
must be taken as applying only to the upper part of the
column, the lower part and the stolons being brown or sand-
colored. The disc was “apple-green,” and the tentacles green.
The column upon the outside is covered by a cuticle, in
which are sparingly imbedded foreign bodies. The ectoderm
is separated from the cuticle by a layer of mesoglcea, and con-
sists of cells arranged in groups separated by partitions of.
mesoglea, but not showing the degeneration which occurs in
Z. sociatus. The mesoglea is comparatively thick, and consists
of a homogeneous matrix containing (1) numerous anastomos-
ing spaces more or less filled with cells, and (2) granular cells
which give rise to delicate processes which enter into connec-
tion with other granular cells, and with the spaces just men-
tioned, and with the ectoderm and the endoderm. Some sug-
gestions regarding the origin and function of these structures
will be found in connection with the description of M. tuber-
culata which follows. The endoderm of the column is low,
and consists of more or less spherical cells, usually containing
zooxanthelle. A delicate layer of muscle fibres arranged cir-
cularly occurs between tle endoderm and the mesoglea.
At the upper part of the column a well-developed double
sphincter muscle occurs, imbedded in the mesoglea. It is
stronger than that found in Z. sociatus, and more nearly
resembles that described by Erdmann' and Hertwig? in Z.
Danz.(?)
The tentacles, according to the brief notes taken of the liv-
ing specimens, are “ short, 50-60 in number, in three rows.” My
preparations, however, show that the last statement is erro-
neous, the tentacles being arranged in two cycles only. Their
ectoderm is not imbedded in the mesogicea, nor is there a
cuticle covering it. The ectodermal muscle processes of the
a A. Erdmann. Ueber einige neue Zoantheen. Jen. Zeit. XIX. 1885.
2, R. Hertwig. Supplement to report on the Actiniaria. Zoology of the Voyage
of H.M S. Challenger. Vol. XXVI. 1888.
ZOOLOGY OF THE BERMUDAS. 121
mesogleea are fairly devcloped, and immediately below them
are to be seen, imbedded in the mesoglea, peculiar granular
pale yellowish-green cells, the protoplasm of which, with the
exception of the nucleus, does not stain with carmine. Other-
wise the mesoglea is homogencous. The endoderm is thick,
and is richly supplied with zooxanthelle. In structure the
disc resembles the tentacles, possessing, like them, the peculiar
yellowish-green granular cells.
The mesoglea of the stomatodeum is homogeneous. I can-
not make any statements as to the histology of the ectoderm of
this region, as it had macerated into a mass of a characteristic
appearance which cannot easily be described. Transverse sec-
tions show that the gonidial groove, to which the macro or
ventral directives are attached, is very shallow, and indeed can
hardly be said to exist.
The mesenteries are arranged on the microtypus.* Their
mesogloea is for the most part very thin but thickens towards
the base where it contains a canal. (Pl. 11, fig. 4, be.) A
second canal, circular in section and packed with cells, occurs
in the thin region, the mesoglea splitting to form its walls.
The muscle layers are only slightly developed.
A very peculiar arrangement occurs in connection with the
mesenterial filaments of the perfect mesenteries. Immediately
below the stomatodeum the mesenterial filament is triradiate
(PI. 11, fig. 3), the central ray being short and stout, the lateral
rays longer and recurved. The epithelium covering the cen-
tral ray and that face of the lateral rays which looks towards
it resembles in structure that of the stomatodeum. The outer
surface of the lateral rays is, however, covered with cells similar
to those which line the general surface of the mesentery. Ina
section which passes through the stomatodeum a little above
its extremity, the intervals between the perfect mesenteries is
occupied by macerated tissue resembling the ectoderm of the
stomatodeum. Apparently, it lines the surfaces of the mesen-
* See Erdmann, /oc. c#t.
122 THE BERMUDA ISLANDS.
teries for a short distance outwards from their point of attach-
ment to the stomatodéeum, and also the outer surface of the lat-
ter for a short distance above its inner opening. It looks as if
the ectoderm of the stomatodzeum were reflected upwards, so as
to cover its endodermal surface and the adjacent surfaces of
the perfect mesenteries. Further down (PI. 11, fig. 4) the two
‘lateral processes of the mesenterial filaments disappear, the cen-
tral one alone persisting. It is evidently the “ glandular streak ”
of the filament. The cells which cover the surface of the mes-
entery for some distance outward from this towards the column-
wall are very peculiar. (PI. 11, fig. 4di.) They form a layer
much thicker than that formed by the ordinary endodermal
cells, and are loaded with green granules, closely packed
together so that to the naked eye the region occupied by this
layer is of that color. Foreign bodies of organic nature are
imbedded in the cells, sometimes being surrounded by a num-
ber of cells containing no granules, or occasionally imbedded
in the mesoglcea.
In unstained specimens, when the animal is laid open by a
longitudinal incision, this region of the mesenteries is very
distinct on account of its rich green color. When the loose
cells of the green area are scraped away with a scalpel and
examined, they are seen to be of a very irregular shape (sug-
gesting a power of amcboid movement), and to contain nu-
merous green globules, much smaller than the zooxanthelle,
darker in color, and homogeneous in structure. Amongst the
cells are numerous zooxanthelle, and there are also numerous
spherical refractive bodies, apparently of a fatty nature and
with a slightly-greenish tinge, as well as the foreign bodies
already mentioned as seen in the section, and very numerous
delicate acicular silicious spicules.
The.occurrence of these spicules and organic foreign bodies
in the cells of this region is very strong evidence in favor of
the supposition that they have a digestive function. The
green globules may be the products of digestion. If this be
the case it is exceedingly interesting, as indicating a method of
ZOOLOGY OF THE BERMUDAS. 123
digestion in the Zoantheze somewhat differcnt from what is
usually described as occurring in the rest of the Actiniaria.
None of the specimens examined posscssed sexual organs.
There were about 24-26 pairs of mesenteries in the spec:mens
examined.
I have identified this form with Z. flos-marinus of Duchassaing
and Michelotti, with the imperfect description of which it
agrees fairly well. In many respects it comes near Z. sociatus,
but differs markedly from it in others; such for instance, as in
the nature of the ectoderm and in the form of the sphincter-
muscle, so that it must be regarded as distinct. From the
only Zoanthus hitherto described from the Bermudas, Z.
Danx (?) of Hertwig' it is readily distinguished by the ab-
sence of any distinct line of demarcation between the upper
and lower portions of the column.
Mammillifera tuberculata (Gray) (PI. 1], figs. 5 and 6.)
Isaurus tuberculatus—J. E. Gray. 1828.
Zoanthus tuberculatus—Duchassaing and Michelotti. 1860.
Antinedia tuberculata—Duchassaing and Michelotti. 1866.
Zoanthus (Monanthus) tuberculatus—Andres. 1883.
Antinedia Duchassaingi—Andres. 1883.
This form was first described by J. E. Gray,’ from specimens
in the British Museum whose locality was unknown. He
adopted for the genus Savigny’s name Jsaurus. In 1860,
Duchassaing and Michelotti rediscovered it, and, though ap-
parently unacquainted with the earlier description of Gray,
applied to it the same specific name, but placed it in the genus
Zoanthus, on account of the absence of sandy incrustations on
the column walls. In their second paper these authors, placing
importance on the tuberculation of the column walls, erected
for its reception the genus Antinedia. Andres, in his most use-
ful monograph, has assumed that the form described by Gray
1 R. Hertwig. Supplement to report on the Actiniaria of the Challenger Expe-
dition. 1888.
2 J. E. Gray —“Spicilegia Zoologica.” London. 1828.
124 THE BERMUDA ISLANDS.
is different from that which Duchassaing and Michelotti ob-
tained at St. Thomas and Guadeloupe, relying probably on
the discrepancies between the poor figures given by the latter
authors and the more correct one which Gray has given. He
consequently retains the specific term tuberculatus for Gray’s
form; proposing for Duchassaing and Michelotti’s the name
Duchassuingi. There is little room for doubt, however, that
the two forms are identical; my observations have shown
that the species is to be referred to the genus Mammillifera as
defined by Erdmann.
The specimens from the Bermudas were either solitary,
attached to a piece of rock by a base only very slightly ex-
panded, or else were grouped together in twos or threes, in
which case they were united by a slightly-developed, flat or
slightly tubular ccenenchyma. In none had the cenenchyma
any such tubular or stolon-like form as is shown in the figure
given by Duchassaing and Michelotti. Judging from the speci-
mens I studied, the tendency to form a coenenchyma is slight.
The polyps (PI. 11, fig. 5) vary in height from 1.3-2.7 em.;
their diameter being about 0.7-0.9em. The column is marked
by six or eight distinct annular grooves, and by from twenty
to twenty-five longitudinal ones. In the lower part of the
column the ridges formed by these longitudinal grooves are
entire, but higher up they begin to be divided into series of
tubercles, a row of these corresponding to each ridge. These
tubercles increase in size towards the margin and several
-become grouped together upon elevations of the column wall,
giving rise to mulberry-like protuberances. Near the margin
the tubercles suddenly cease, forming, in contracted specimens,
a strong ridge bounding the dome-shaped area which forms in
such specimens the summit. This dome-shaped area belongs
to the column, the animal beiug strongly contracted, and
though without tubercles shows clearly the continuation up-
wards upon it of the longitudinal furrows, and is, accordingly,
marked by a series of radiating ridges.
In structure the tubercles of the column are solid, being
ZOOLOGY OF THE BERMUDAS. 125
elevations of the mesoglea. This tissue throughout the
column is very thick, measuring on the average 1 mm. in
thickness. It presents numerous anastomosing canals filled
with cells, as well as the delicate canals which have been de-
seribed by Erdmann and others, very distinctly. These canals.
are without doubt processes from the large canals, and the
structure of the zoanthan mesoglcea may be compared to that
of a bone, such as a frog’s femur, the anastomosing canals
being compared to the lacunz, and the delicate canals to the
canaliculi. My preparations of M. tuberculata seem to show
that the lacune arise from both the ectoderm and the endo-
derm. In some of my sections deep bays can be seen running
from the endoderm up into the mesoglea, and from their ends
and sides numerous canaliculi can be seen branching out.
These bays are found in various stages of enclosure by the
mesoglea, the cells which they contain being in some cases
continuous with the general endoderm, in other cases almost
separated from it, and finally quite so. So too with the ecto-
derm. The lacunw which have just been formed in this man-
ner are much larger than the majority of those scattered
through the mesogliea, these frequently consisting of only a
few cells or even a single cell, and further, the newly-formed
lacune usually contain zooxanthellae, which are rare in the
older ones. It would seem as if many of the newly-formed
lacunz become divided into smaller portions which separate
from each other, except by the delicate canaliculi, and at the
same time undergo an alteration in the histological structure
of their cells, the zooxanthelle disappearing, and the cells be-
coming filled with refractive, deeply-staining granules. , It
seems not improbable that these altered cells are concerned in
the formation of the mesoglcea, their granules being particles
which will later on be added to the matrix of the mesdglcea.
Upon the outside of the column is a thin cuticle (PI. 11, fig.
6, cu) similar to what occurs in Z. sociatus and Z. flos-marinus.
Andres* considers this to be merely a differentiation or hard-.
* A, Andres. On a new genus and species of Zoanihina Malacodermata (Pax
ceria spongiosa, sp. n.)—Quart, Journ. Micros. Sci. N.S. Vol xvii. 1887.
\
126 THE BERMUDA ISLANDS.
ening of the external layers of the mesogloea, but I cannot
agree with this view. It is a clearly defined layer external to
the mesoglea, and appears quite different in composition and
behavior to staining fluids from that tissue. Below this cuticle
comes a layer of mesoglcea for which Andres’s term subcuticula
may be employed. The distinction between the cuticle and
this layer has been overlooked by most authors. It was rec-
ognized by Kolliker’, however, who believed it to be a portion
of the cuticle. Andres recognized its true nature, considering
it simply a continuation of the mesogleea.
Below the subcuticula is the ectoderm (PI. 11, fig. 6, ec),
which forms a layer 0°08 mm. in thickness. It is not contin-
uous, however, but is divided into more or less cubical masses
by columns of mesoglea extending from the general mass of
that tissue to the subcuticula. A peculiar feature of the ecto-
derm of this species is the presence in it of zooxanthelle. In
adult actinians these structures are usually confined to the en-
doderm, but I have observed them in the ectoderm in free-
swimming larvee,in which layer they also occur according to
H. V. Wilson’ in the embryos of the coral Manicina. It is pos-
sible that their presence in the ectoderm of M. tuberculata is due
to the thick cuticle and subcuticula preventing a rapid aeration
of the ectoderm cells, and so, by favoring the accumulation to
a certain extent of carbon dioxide, producing favorable condi-
tions for the growth of the parasitic algee. The ectoderm thus
buried in the mesoglea evidently corresponds with what
Kolliker, in the admirable account he has given of the zoan-
than mesoglea,’ terms “eine zusammenhangende Schicht
driisenartiger Korper” and which he believed to correspond to
the ectoderm.
The endoderm consists of low cells containing numerous zoo-
xanthelle. In the upper part of the column, extending from
1 Kélliker. Jcones Histologice. Leipzig. 1865.
2H. V. Wilson. On the Development of Manicina areolata. Journal of Mor-
phology. Vol. II. 1888. :
3 A. Kolliker, oc. cit.
ZOOLOGY OF THE BERMUDAS. 127
the margin to the upper row of tubercles, is a single strong
sphincter muscle imbedded in the mesoglea, and occupying
nearly its whole thickness.
All the specimens were in a state of strong contraction, and
I was not able to see the tentacles. Duchassaing and Michelotti
state that they are small tubercles. My sections show that
they are arranged in two cycles. It is also evident that they
are short, but they can scarcely be termed tubercles. ‘Their
mesogloea is thick, especially toward the base, thinning out
somewhat towards the apex. Its outer surface is thrown into
rather strong muscular processes.
The surface of the stomatodeum is thrown into numerous
rather high folds, the ectoderm being elevated on slender proc-
esses of the mesoglea.
The mesenteries are arranged on the microtypus and num-
ber twenty-two pairs. Towards their base the mesoglcea is
very thick, diminishing gradually towards the distal edge.
Just at the base there is a sudden diminution of the thickness,
so that they are attached to the column wall by a thin pedicle.
The basal portion contains the usual canal, and in addition
there are numerous lacune, similar to those of the column wall
in every respect. MM. tubercwata is hermaphrodite, and I am
able to add this particular to the definition of the genus given
by Erdmann.* I could not make out any regularity in the
arrangement of the reproductive elements on the different
mesenteries, nor did there seem to be any definiteness in their
position in any one mesentery. Sometimesa mesentery would
possess ova only, but usually each one presented both ova and
spermatozoa.
Corticifera ocellata (Ellis).
Alcyonium ocellatum. Ellis and Solander, 1786.
Palythoa ocellata. Lamouroux, 1821.
A number of small colonies of a Corticifera were obtained at
Shelly Bay, and were accompanied by a label referring them
* A. Erdmann, oc. cit.
128 THE BERMUDA ISLANDS.
to the above species. The term ocellata was first given by Ellis
and Solander to a form which, however, was very poorly char-
acterized, so much so that certainty of identification is impos-
sible. The only statement in the description of which use may
be made is that the polyps are rust-colored. Later authors
simply copied Ellis and Solander’s description, until Dana,* evi-
dently relying on the figure which accompanies the earlier
description, adds the characteristic that the polyps, though im-
bedded in ccenenchyma throughout the greatest part of their
extent, are yet free above. Duchassaing and Michelotti in
their paper of 1860 described a form under this name which
_ differs somewhat from the original type species, and is proba-
bly to be considered, as Andres has done, a distinct form. In
their later paper they make this form identical with a form
they name Palythoa mammitllosa, a name taken from a second
imperfectly characterized form mentioned by Ellis and Solander.
In fact, so much confusion is introduced by Duchassaing and
Michelotti as to render it very difficult, if not impossible, to
ascertain what forms they are really describing.
Under the circumstances I have thought it well to retain
the name which accompanied the specimens, and trust that
the following description will sufficiently characterize them to
allow of the identification in the future.
The polyps are grouped together in small masses, and pro-
ject decidedly above the surface of the cenenchyma. Their
height measured from the lower surface of the ccenenchyma is
1-2 em., and their breadth, measured at the summit, about 9°7
em. in the fully grown individuals. The polyps and ccenen-
chyma are densely incrusted with particles of sand and other
foreign bodies, and are of a grayish sandy color, sometimes
deepening to a rust color.
Upon the outside of the column is a rather thick cuticle,
but I was not able to discover whether or not a layer of
mesogloea intervened between this and the ectodermal cells.
* J. D. Dana.—Zoophytes. United States Exploring Expedition. 1849.
NMOL SUANONL ‘HOUV IVUOLYN
ZOOLOGY OF THE BERMUDAS. 129
The outer portion of:the mesoglcea for about half its thickness
has imbedded in it foreign bodies, and when decalcified is
fenestrated by the numerous cavities previously oecupied by
them. The internal portion of the layer presents the structural
features found in other Zoanthide, but itis to be noticed that
foreign bodies occur in the so-called “nutritive canals” or
lacune. The sphincter muscle is imbedded in the mesoglea,
is single, and consists of a single row of cavities containing
muscle fibres.
The tentacles are arranged in two rows, and are apparently
fifty-six in number in the specimens examined. Their outer
muscular layer is weak, and the mesoglea is homogeneous, ex-
cept upon the outer face of the tentacles, where it contains a
number of granular cells similar to those occurring in the
column mesoglcea in this and other forms already described.
Zooxanthellz occur in the ectoderm.
The ectoderm of the disc is peculiar. It consists of high,
much-vacuolated cells which contain, like the ectoderm of the
tentacles, zooxanthelle. I have found this peculiar structure
of the disc ectoderm in no other Zoanthids. Unfortunately
the preservation of the specimens was not sufficiently good to
allow of the histological details being studied. The gonidial
groove of the stomatodeum is rather broad, and the mesoglea
lining is thickened and truncated upon the endodermal side,
the macrodirectives being inserted into each angle of the
truncation.
The mesenteries are arranged on the microtypus, there
being about twenty-six pairs. The basal canal is large, and
contains foreign particles similar to those found in the lacune
of the column. The mesoglcea is thickened towards the base
of the mesenteries and contains, in addition to the basal canal,
several others nearly circular in section and completely filled
with spherical granular cells. The endoderm throughout con-
tains zooxanthelle. No reproductive organs were present.
Corticifera glareola, Les.
Corticifera glareola. Lesueur. 1817.
Palythoa glareola. Milne-Edwards. 1857.
130 THE BERMUDA ISLANDS.
The identification of this form depends mainly on the
coloration, which Professor Heilprin informs me is sufficiently
similar to Lesueur’s description.
The polyps form encrusting masses, and are so deeply im-
bedded in the ccenenchyma, that in contraction a slight de-
pression alone indicates the position of the various individuals,
or in some cases a slight annular elevation. The species is by
this peculiarity readily distinguishable from C. ocellata, as
well as from C. flava of the Bahamas, which stands in an inter-
mediate position as far as the projection of the polyps above
the coenenchyma is concerned. The form described from the
Bermudas by Erdmann, and named C. lutea by Hertwig, re-
sembles C. glareola in this respect, but appears to differ from it
in other points.
The mesogloea is, with the exception of a narrow band im-
mediately adjoining the endoderm of the polyps, richly sup-
plied with imbedded foreign bodies, so that the entire colony
is very hard, almost stony in its consistency. C. ocellata is
much less richly provided with foreign particles, and the same
is the case with Hertwig’s C. lutea. Whether this is a charac-
teristic of sufficient importance for specific distinction can
only be ascertained by the examination of numerous speci-
mens of some species, obtained from different localities and
living under different conditions. In fact, our knowledge of
the histology of the Zoanthide is not yet sufficiently advanced
to enable us to ascertain what features are of systematic im-
portance and what are liable to extensive individual variation.
The sphincter muscle resembles closely that of Hertwig’s
C. lutea. It is imbedded in the mesoglea and is single, con-
sisting of a single row of cavities which are entirely confined
to the portion of the column which is invaginated during con-
traction. All the cavities contain muscle cells, and there are
none of the empty spaces with clearly defined walls such as oc-
cur in C. flava.
The mesenteries are arranged on the microtypus, and in the
specimens examined there were about eighteen pairs only.
ZOOLOGY OF THE BERMUDAS. 131
The mesoglcea is delicate, and is not dilated towards the base
asin C. ocellata, and in consequence, the basal canal is elon-
gated. Notwithstanding that the specimens were very much
macerated it was possible to perceive that a digestive area,
similar to that described as occurring in Z. flos-marinus, was
present, just below the stomatodeum. No reproductive organs
were present.
The stomatodeeum presented the pyriform, truncated shape
which has been described for other members of the genus.
It seems not improbable that the form described by Hertwig
as C. lutea may be identical with this. Alcoholic specimens of
C. glareola show no trace of the coloration of the living forms,
but are of a universal sandy color. In the very slight prom-
inence of the polyps above the ccenenchyma, in the structure
of the sphincter muscle, and in the slenderness of the mesen-
teries there is agreement between the two, and these are points
which will probably prove to be of systematic importance.
On the other hand, there is dissimilarity in the extent of the
incrustation by foreign bodies, in the pigmentation of the
endoderm, which is wanting in C. glareola, and apparently in
the extent of the development of the longitudinal muscles of
the mesenteries, which cannot be said to be well developed in
C. glareola. This last character is probably of importance, but
the first two are probably subject to variation depending upon
the conditions of life and the food.
The evidence then, seems to be in favor of the identity of the
two forms, in which case the name here used has the priority.
It seems to me very doubtful, indeed, if Hertwig’s identifica-
tion of the Bermuda form with Quoy and Gaimard’s C. lutea
from the Feejee islands is correct. The only point of correspond-
ence, judging from the description and figures given by Quoy
and Gaimard,* is the slight prominence of the polyps above the
ccenenchyma when in contraction.
Gemmaria Rusei, Duch. and Mich. (PI. 11, figs. 7-9.)
Gemmaria Rusei. Duchassaing and Michelotti. 1860.
* Quoy and Gaimard, Zoologie du Voyage de la Corvette? Astrolabe. Paris. 1838.
132 THE BERMUDA ISLANDS.
I was pleased to find in the Bermuda collection several
specimens.of a form which evidently belongs to the same genus
as the form from the Bahamas which I described as Gemmaria
asolata. Several anatomical features are common to the two.
and I am now able to give other characteristics which may
serve to distinguish the genus more definitely than was done
in my former paper.
The polyps of G. Rusei (Pl. 11, fig. 7) are solitary, being
attached to pebbles without the development of any ccenen-
chyma. The specimens were obtained at North Rock, and are
five in number. The upper portion of the column is larger
than the lower, so that the polyps have the shape of a short
stout club; the lower portion is transversely wrinkled even in
the expanded condition, as is noted in the label accompanying
the specimens. The height of the column is about 2°5 em. in
the largest specimens; the diameter of the upper part is 0°65
em. and of the lower 0'5 cm. The color-is stated on the label
to have been “cinereous throughout.”
The column wall is rather thin, and is occupied throughout
nearly its entire thickness by foreign bodies. The ectoderm is
covered externally by a cuticle, but I was unable to ascertain
whether a layer of mesoglcea intervened between this and the
surface of the ectoderm. The structure of the thin layer of
mesoglea unoccupied by foreign bodies is as in other Zoanthide,
and calls for no special comment. The sphincter is single,
and imbedded in the mesoglea; it consists for the most part
of a single layer of cavities, but thickens somewhat towards its
upper end. All the cavities contain muscle cells, there being
none of the empty cavities described in G. isolata.
The tentacles are arranged in two cycles, and have only a
very weak ectodermal musculature, as is also the case in G. iso-
lata. Towards the base and upon the outer surface the mesoglea
contains peculiar granular cells, and occasionally enclosures
of foreign bodies, and this likewise occurs in G. isolata.
The disc is traversed by a number of ridges which radiate
from the peristome to the margin, a ridge corresponding to
ZOOLOGY OF THE BERMUDAS. 133
each tentacle of the outer cycle. The elevations are produced
by thickenings of the mesoglea (Pl. 11, fig. 9), and along each
ridge the ectodermal muscle cells are more numerous and
larger than elsewhere. G. isolata presents similar structures.
Zooxanthelle occur in the ectoderm of the disc, and tentacles
in both forms. The enclosures in the mesoglea of the disc,
which I thought might possibly be muscle cells in G. isolata, are
seen in G. Rusei to be comparable to the lacune of the column
wall.
The mesogleea of the stomatodeum in both species of Gem-
maria has enclosures of granular cells (Pl. 11, fig. 8), as a
rule one such enclosure opposite the insertion of each mesen-
tery, especially in the upper part of the stomatodeum, the ar-
rangement being lost in the lower part. The gonidial groove
has the same shape as that of G. isolata.
The mesenteries are arranged in thirty-one pairs and are on
the microtypus. The mesoglea thickens towards the base so
that the basal canal is almost circular and not elongated as in
G. isolata. No reproductive organs were present.
The description given by Duchassaing and Michelotti of
Gemmaria Rusei, with which I identify this form, is very im-
perfect, but so far as it goes it applies to the Bermuda species.
The form described by Gray* as Triga Philippinensis is very
similar in external form and is in all probability a Gemmaria.
Of the forms described above, no less than seven, viz: Con-
dylactis passiflora, Phymanthus crucifer, Zoanthus flos-marinus,
Mammillifera turberculata, Corticifera ocellata, C. glareola and
Gemmaria Ruse, are represented in the West Indian fauna, and
of the other three, the genera Aiptasia and Phyllactis also
occur in the islands to the South, leaving only the genus
Diplactis as a characteristic form of the Bermudas. No doubt
a systematic search for actinians in the Bermudas would lead
to the discovery of a greater number of West Indian forms,
but the proportion of common forms given above is sufficient
* J. E.Gray. Notes on Zoanthinz with Descriptions of some New Genera. Proc.
Zool. Soc. London, 1867.
134 THE BERMUDA ISLANDS.
to show that the actinian fauna of the Bermudas has been de-
rived from that of the West Indies.
EXPLANATION OF PLATES.
be.=basal canal. en.=endoderm.
e.=column wall. jr.—tronds.
cm.=circular muscles. m.=margin.
cu.=cuticle. p.=tentaculiform fronds.
d.==dise. sp.=sphincter.
di=digestive region of mesen-
terial filament. sp'.—lower sphincter.
Ec.=Ectoderm. t.=tentacle.
PLATE 10.
1. Transverse section through the middle region of the
sphincter of Aiptasia sp. (?) X 350.
2. Longitudinal section through the upper half of the column
wall of Aiptasia sp. (?) x 40.
3. Transverse section through the outer edge of the longitu-
dinal mesenterial muscles of a specimen of Condylactis passi-
flora from the Bermudas. 42.
4, Longitudinal section through the margin and adjacent
parts of Diplactis Bermudensis. 24.
5. Longitudinal section through the margin and adjacent
parts of Oulactis fasciculata. X 21.
6. Transverse section through the longitudinal mesenterial
muscles below the stomatodeum in Diplactis Bermudensis.
x 40.
Puate 11.
1. Perfect mesentery of Diplactis Bermudensis. Natural size.
2. Portion of transverse section of sphincter of Diplactis
Bermadensis. X 100.
3. Transverse section of mesenterial filament of Zoanthus
flos-marinus just below the stomatodeum. 120.
4. Transverse section of perfect mesentery of Zoanthus flos-
marinus slightly below the stomatodeum. x 50.
ZOOLOGY OF THE BERMUDAS. 135
5. Mammillifera tuberculata. Natural size.
6. One-fourth of a portion of a longitudinal section through
the column wall of M. tuberculata. >< 200.
7. Gemmaria Rusei. Natural size.
8. Transverse section through the gonidial groove of Gem-
maria Ruse. x 65.
9. Transverse section through upper part of column of
Gemmaria Ruset. x 24.
Hyproip-CoraLs.
Apparently both of the common West India species of mille-
pore, Millepora alcicornis and M. filiformis, are found in the Ber-
mudas; at any rate, forms answering to these are found in our
collections. I feel doubtful, however, if the two should not
properly be classed as a single species, seeing how great is the
individual variation, and how closely the species approximate
one another. It is certainly not easy to sepurate them by the
characters which have been generally indicated by systematists.
VII.
THE ZOOLOGY OF THE BERMUDAS (continued).
HOLOTHURIA.
The animals of this order are in places exceedingly abun-
dant; indeed, excepting the corals, they may be said to consti-
‘tute the most distinctive feature of the fauna of the sand bot-
toms. Where other forms are apparently entirely absent, the
black masses of the great Stichopus stand out in prominent
relief over the white bottom. Motionless, seemingly, during
the greater part of their existence, these singular creatures
present the appearance of big black blotches on the sand, of
which they consume, whether for nourishment or otherwise,
vast quantities. All the individuals that were opened had
their digestive tracts completely filled with calcareous par-
ticles.
The following are the species of holothurians observed by
us, only one of which, I believe, had hitherto been noted from
the Bermudas:
Holothuria Floridana, Pourtalés. (Holothuria atra, Jiger.) Pl. 12, figs. 6, 6a,
7, Ta.
I identify with this species five small individuals of an
olive-green color which were obtained in Castle Harbor,
and which in a general way agree with the description of the
species given by Pourtalés (Proc. American Assoc., 1851, p. 12).
Unfortunately, no figure accompanies the description, and that
part which pertains to the calcareous bodies embodied in the
skin is too vague to permit of specific determination. Selenka
(Zeitschrift fiir wissenschaftliche Zoologie, xvii, p. 324, 1867) has
supplemented the original description with further details of
ZOOLOGY OF THE BERMUDAS. 137
structure and with illustrations of the spicules, which prac-
tically leave no doubt in my mind that the Bermudian forms,
even though differing somewhat from the type described by
Pourtalés, are really that species. I have examined the spicu-
lar bodies of all the individuals, and find that they exhibit
considerable variation (Pl. , figs. 6, 6a, 7, 7a). This is especially
noticeable in the form of the stools. I really doubt if very
much dependence can be placed upon these bodies as furnish-
ing characters for specific distinction. I also find a certain
amount of variation in the number of tentacles. Thus, while
four of the individuals have the normal number of tentacles,
20, one has only 10, although in all other essentials of struct-
ure it agrees with the remaining four. The dorsal surface is
distinctly papillate. The elongated yellowish pedicels of the
ventral surface are irregularly distributed, as stated by Selenka,
and I could not determine any strictly linear disposition such
as is indicated by Pourtales.
The largest specimen measures about two and a half inches.
Semper, Ludwig, and Lampert (Die Seewalzen, Semper’s
Reisen im Archipel der Philippinen, 1885, p. 86) identify this
species with the Holothuria atra of Jager (1833), whose range is
made to be practically cosmopolitan—extending from the
‘Radack Archipelago and the Sandwich Islands to Adelaide,
‘Zanzibar, the Red Sea, and the West Indies—but on this point
I can offer no satisfactory evidence, never having had an op-
portunity to examine authentic specimens of Jager’s species.
Holothuria captiva, Ludwig. (Pl. 12, figs. 4, 4a.)
Two individuals, agreeing with the species described by
Ludwig from the Barbados.
Holothuria abbreviata, u.sp. (Pl. 12, figs. 5, 8, 8a.)
Among the smaller forms of holothurians is one which in
many of its characters agrees most closely with Ludwig’s H.
captiva, but yet differs to such an extent as to compel me to rec-
ognize it as a distinct species. Indeed, by many systematists
it would probably be made the type of a distinct sub-genus or
138 THE BERMUDA ISLANDS.
genus. The distinguishing peculiarity is the abrupt truncation
of the body, which carries the vent on the dorsal surface, im-
mediately about the extremital border. In the single specimen
before me I could determine only 17 tentacles, with as many
tentacular vesicles, and but a single Polian body. A large
Cuvierian bundle is present. The pedicels are arranged ven-
trally in three more or less distinct rows. Color olive green.
Length about two inches.
The stools, buttons, and fenestrated plates of the pedicels are
figured on plate 12. It will be seen that in general they bear
a close resemblance to those of Holothuria captiva, but the
rounded summits of the stools serve readily to distinguish
them from the somewhat similar, but more strictly castellated,
bodies of the other species.
SEMPERIA.
Semperia Bermudensis, u. sp. (PI. 12, figs. 2, 2a, 3.)
Body cylindrical, spindle-shaped, tapering almost equally to
both extremities. Tentacles 10, of which four are shorter than
the remaining 6; pedicels crowded, arranged in five broad
rows, and scattered over the interambulacral areas; two genital
bundles, with very numerous non-divided, and greatly elon-
gated filaments; two Polian vesicles; two long respiratory
trees. Color grayish white, minutely speckled with brown;
five narrow longitudinal brown bands separating the ambulac-
ral areas. Length about 34 inches.
Calcareous bodies consisting of baskets, knotted and smooth
buttons, and perforated more or less circular disks; pedicels
with fenestrated plates. Calcareous ring with long back proc-
esses for the attachment of the powerful retractor muscles.
One specimen, from the north shore about a half-mile west
of Flatts Village.
I first mistook this species for the Semperia (Colochirus) gem- -
mata of Pourtalés (Proc. Amer. Assoc. 1851, p. 11), described
from Sullivan’s Island, coast of South Carolina, but the more
exact descriptions and figures of that species given by Selenka
and Lampert convince me that it is quite distinct. Both
ZOOLOGY OF THE BERMUDAS. 139
species are of a grayish-white color, but no mention is made by
either of the authors above quoted of the existence in the Car-
olinian form of the five longitudinal brown bands which extend
over the entire length of the Bermudian species. Apart from
this, Semperia Bermudensis differs in the disposition of the ten-
tacles, the greater number of Polian vesicles, and the character
of the spicular buttons, which are in the greater number of
instances strongly knotted. The posterior processes of the
calcareous ring appear also to be much more elongated.
From Semperia (Cucumaria) punctata, described by Ludwig
from the Barbados (Arbeiten aus dem zoolog. zvotom. Instituts in
Wiirzburg, ii, 1875, p. 82) the species differs, apart from the gen-
eral scheme of coloring—tentacles as well as body—in the
different disposition of the tentacles (9 equal in S. punctata, ac-
cording to Ludwig), the smaller number of Polian vesicles (5 in S.
punctata), and in the much greater number of filaments com-
posing the genital bundles. The vent does not appear to have
been rayed.
Ludwig states that there are in his species no calcareous
teeth about the anal aperture, whereas Lampert just as posi-
tively asserts that they are present (Semper, Philippinen, 1885,
p. 152). None such were detected in the Bermudian form.
STICHOPUS.
Stichopus diaboli, n. sp. (PI. 13, figs. 1, la, 1b, 2.)
Body stout, more or less quadrangular, flattened ventrally,
and bearing two rows of prominent marginal wart-like, tuber-
cles; sometimes two additional rows of minor tubercles are
noticeable on the lateral margins of thedorsum. Tentacles 20,
unequal. Dorsal papille scattered, not prominent, leaving the
surface nearly smooth. Pedicels and papille on ventral sur-
face arranged in three broad bands, which are more or less dis-
tinct for the entire length of the body, but most distinct near
the extremities; numerous in each transverse row.
The body-cavity is largely occupied by the greatly developed,
and finely dissected, respiratory apparatus, and by the loops of
140 THE BERMUDA ISLANDS.
the variously branched genital organs, which are disposed in
two great.bundles. Tentacular vesicles present. Two Polian
vesicles. Calcareous ring with long back processes.
Caleareous bodies in the form of stools very numerous (PI.
13, fig. 16). C-shaped bodies very scanty, and possibly in
some cases entirely wanting.
Color black, somewhat more intensely so on the dorsal sur-
face, becoming Vandyke brown or chocolate in alcohol.
Length, about one foot; width of corresponding animal
about three inches. i
Abundant over the sandy floor of the entrance to Harring-
ton Sound, opposite Flatts Village, in Harrington Sound, and
in Castle Harbor, whence it was obtained in several of our
dredgings.
I have little doubt that this species is the dark-brown form
which is referred to. by Théel as having been obtained by the
officers of the Challenger at the Bermudas, and which is
doubtfully referred by that authority to Semper’s Stichopus
Haytiensis (Report on the Holothuroidea, Challenger Reports,
Zoology, XIV, p. 162). Only asingle specimen appears to have
been obtained, which when examined was too deformed to
permit of positive specific determination. I cannot agree
with Théel’s determination. Apart from the differences which
Théel himself points out, is the great difference in coloring.
Semper (Keisen, Philippinen, Holothurien, 1868, p. 75) states
that-his species is dark chocolate-brown, blotched with yellow
spots, which form five longitudinal bands, corresponding to
the interradii. No such coloration is visible in our species,
although probably we observed as many as a hundred in-
dividuals, all of which were uniformly black. Semper’s de-
scription of the coloring of Stichopus Haytiensis is re-stated by
Lampert.
Stichopus xanthomela, n. sp. (PI. 12, fig. 1; Pl. 13, fig. 3.)
Body stout, flattened ventrally, and bearing on the basal
margin two rows (one row on each side, as in the preceding
ZOOLOGY OF THE BERMUDAS. 141
species) of prominent wart-like processes. Tentacles 18, un-
equal, whitish or gray, edged with brown. Dorsal papille
fairly prominent, scattered. Pedicels on ventral surface
crowded, arranged in three longitudinal series, five to eight, or
more, in each transverse row.
Body-cavity, as in the preceding, largely occupied by the
respiratory tree and the double genital bundle, the filamental
processes of the latter much finer than in S. diaboli. Tentacu-
lar vesicles present. One (?) Polian vesicle.
Calcareous bodies, in the form of stools (Pl. 13, fig. 3), very
numerous C-shaped bodies scarce, in the form of broadly-
opened calipers. Ground-color reddish-yellow, irregularly
blotched with black or very dark brown. The spots on the
ventral surface more or less coalescent in the median line,
forming there a broad longitudinal band, or entirely united to
form a uniformly dark-colored base; on the back, united into
two irregularly ramifying or wandering bands.
Length of longest specimen about ten inches; width about
two and a-half or three inches.
The same habitat as that of the preceding species, although
apparently much less abundant.
I strongly suspect that this is the form which Théel, in his
report on the Challenger holothurians (loc. cit., p. 159), identi-
fies with Stichopus Mébii (Semper), one specimen of which,
“rather deformed and compressed” when examined by Théel,
was obtained at the Bermudas. I assume the identity in this
case, as well as in that of the preceding species, on the ground
that the two species here described are the characteristic forms
of the archipelago, and it is barely possible that they could
have escaped the attention of the Challenger people. But the
identification with Semper’s species appears to be erro-
neous. The resemblance to Stichopus Mébii appears to rest
talmos wholly upon the form of the spicules, which are largely
similar in many very distinct forms of Stichopus, and in a
general scheme of coloring. But Semper distinctly states
(Holothurien, loc. cit., p. 246) that the characteristic spots are
142 THE BERMUDA ISLANDS.
almost wholly wanting on the ventral surface, and no mention
is made of their occurrence there by Lampert in his revision
of the species of the genus (op. cit., p. 108). Moreover, Semper
affirms that the body is devoid of wart-like tubercles, whereas
such are quite prominent in the Bermudian form, although
not as prominent as in Stichopus diaboli. Théel, however,
makes no mention of the occurrence of tubercles in his single
specimen, but probably through contraction in alcohol their
existence had been effaced. ‘The number of pedicels in each
transverse row seems-also to be much more numerous in the
Bermudian species than in Stichopus Mobi.
Another apparently related form is Stichopus errans of
Ludwig (Arbeiten zoolog. zootom. Inst., Wiirzburg, 1875, p. 97),
described from a specimen in the Hamburg Museum, reputed
to have come from the Barbados. But in this species there
appear likewise to be no lateral tubercles, nor is the coloring
like that of our species, although in this regard there may be
considerable variation. The number of tentacles is stated by
Ludwig to be 19, and their color yellow. The form from the
Barbados which is somewhat doubtfully referred by Théel (loc.
cit., p. 191) to Ludwig’s S. errans would seem to be more nearly
related to the Bermudian species.
ASTEROIDEA.
We obtained but a single species of star-fish on the Ber-
mudian coast. This is the Asterias Atlantica of Verrill, a form
which had already been previously noted from the Bermudas
(Trans. Conn. Acad. Sciences, i, p. 368), and whose range
extends to the Abrolhos Reef, Brazil. With very few excep-
tions the rays were either six or eight in number, and of the
total number of individuals examined I believe that not over
two had five arms. The species exhibits a marked want of
constancy in ornamentation and coloring, the dorsal spines
being in some cases acute, while in others they are terminated
by a minute bead; again, while the maculation is brown in
ZOOLOGY OF THE BERMUDAS. 143
some individuals, in others it is blue, or of both colors combined.
Asterias Atlantica, Verrill.
Common in the entrance to Harrington Sound, opposite
Flatts Village—under stones; dredged in Harrington Sound.
Linokia Guildingii, Gray.
A single specimen, marked as having been collected by Mr.
Janney in the Bermudas, is in the possession of the Academy
of Natural Sciences.
OPHIUROIDEA.
Six species of ophiurians were obtained in our dredgings
and under rock shelters, the greater number of which, so far as
J am aware, had not hitherto been reported from the Bermudas.
For a critical examination and review of ‘the species I am in-
debted mainly to my assistant, Mr. J. E. Ives, who has made a
careful study of all the species in the collections of the Academy
of Natural Sciences. From an examination of many of these
forms I feel satisfied that too much dependence should not be
placed upon the constancy in minute details of either the form
or relative size of the arm plates and their appendages, nor
upon an exact scheme of coloration. These characters, and
others that may be added, which have been drawn in very
close limits by Mr. Lyman in his several memoirs, vary ma-
terially within the limits of the same individual, and render the
discrimination of species which have been most “elaborately ”
defined as to exact lengths and breadths of the arm-shields and
oval plates, the precise form and number of the arm-spines,
etc., a matter of almost hopeless impossibility.
Ophiocoma crassispina, Say.
One specimen, taken at low water from the North Rock,
which agrees perfectly with the species described by Say from
the coast of Florida (Journ. Acad. Nat. Sci., Phila. v, p. 147),
This species is generally considered to be identical with the
Ophiocoma (Ophiura) echinata of Lamarck, but I am disposed
to consider this identification erroneous, unless, indeed, several
144 THE BERMUDA ISLANDS.
distinct forms, as has been averred by Miller and Troschel
(System der Asteriden, 1842, p. 98), were included by Lamarck
in his species. Two distinct forms, closely related to each
other, certainly do occur in the West Indies, one of which, with
more blunt arm spines, is clearly Say’s species, while the other,
with more elongated arm spines, and much less stoutly devel-
oped uppermost spine, more nearly corresponds to the general
type of Lamarck’s species.
Ophiocoma pumila, Liitken.
A fragmentary specimen; exact locality unknown. This
species had been recorded by the Challenger from Bermuda.
Ophiostigma isacantha, Say.
Two very young specimens, dredged in Harrington Sound.
Ophiactis Miilleri, Liitken.
O. Krebsii, Liitken ?
Two very young specimens, dredged on the north shore be-
tween Bailey’s Bay and Shelly Bay.
Ophionereis reticulata, Liitken.
Very abundant at low tide in the rock shelters of Shelly Bay ;
also under stones at the entrance to Harrington Sound.
Ophiomyxa flaccida, Liitken.
One specimen, dredged in Bailey’s Bay.
ECHINOIDEA.
The number of species of echinoids observed by us is six, of
which five had already previously been ascribed to the archi-
pelago; Cidaris tribuloides, so far as I am aware, had not
hitherto been collected—at any rate, I have been unable to
find any mention of its occurrence there. One species, Mellita
sexforis, we did not ourselves collect, the specimens in our pos-
session having been kindly donated to us by local collectors.
Cidaris tribuloides, Bl.
Fairly abundant among the coral shelters of the North
Rock.
Diadema setosa, Gray.
DONICNVI FHL
ZOOLOGY OF THE BERMUDAS. 145
This species, one of the gems among sea-urchins, is exceed-
ingly abundant in the flats about the North Rock. All the
individuals occupied recesses in the coral growth, which they
had by some means probably managed to keep open. It seems
hardly likely that they should have crept into these shelters
after they had been already formed, and that the association
is one of mere selection.
The species is also abundant in the moderately deep water
that lies within the reef border.
Hipponoé esculenta, Leske.
North Rock, and the deeper water within the growing reef.
Echinometra subangularis, Leske.
Several specimens from the flats about the North Rock.
There is a certain amount of variation in the coloration of the
spines which ranges from olive or sea-green to purple.
Toxopneustes variegatus, Lamk.
We found this species very abundant in Harrington
Sound, where it rarely escaped being hauled up in our dredge.
It seems to frequent the calcareous bottom to a depth of 10-12
fathoms, or even more. Probably the species is equally abun-
dant elsewhere.
Mellita sexforis, Agassiz.
As before remarked, we did not ourselves obtain any speci-
mens of this species. It is said to be abundant along the cal-
careous bottoms of some of the inlets, as, for example, opposite
Flatts Village.
VII.
ZOOLOGY OF THE BERMUDAS (continued).
CRUSTACEA.
For the following notes on the Crustacea I am principally
indebted to Mr. Witmer Stone, one of my assistants on the
trip, who has madea careful study of all the specimens, as well
as of the allied and identical species contained in the collections
of the Academy of Natural Sciences. In the case of in any
way doubtful forms I have personally satisfied myself as to
the determinations, particularly in cases where the geo-
graphical range appeared to indicate possible or probable
error. The occurrence in the Bermudas of a number of what
had hitherto been considered to be distinctively Pacific or Old
World types, as for example, Palemonella tenuipes (Sooloo Sea),
Palemon affinis (Pacific), Penzus velutinus (Pacific)—may be
considered positive, even though it be opposed to the common
facts of zoogeography. But this anomaly in distribution is
again repeated among the Mollusca, as will be seen in the
enumeration of species further on.
The total number of species here enumerated is not very
large, but yet it is considerably in excess of the number
published in any previous paper, probably one-half of the
species being now for the first time credited to the Bermudas.
The species of some of the remaining groups—the Isopoda,
Amphipoda—still await analysis and determination.
BRACHYURA.
Microphrys bicornutus, Latr.
ZOOLOGY. ARTHROPODA. 147
Three females and one male, collected on the beach at the
entrance to Harrington Sound.
Mithraculus hirsutipes, Kingsley.
Two males and one small female, which agree in every way
with the description of the species given by Kingsley (Proc.
Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., 20, p. 147), except in the number of teeth
on the fingers, a character which appears to’be very variable.
The three individuals differ in this respect among themselves.
Actza setigera, Milne-Edwards.
One male dredged off Shelly Bay. The individual differs
from the description given by Milne-Edwards (Nouv. Arch. du
Mus. d’ Hist. Nat. i, p. 271, pl. xviii, fig. 2) in having the color
of the outside of the hands red, instead of black. It however
agrees precisely with specimens attributed to Milne-Edwards’
species in the collections of the Academy, and labeled as com-
ing from the Florida reefs. The species has also been recorded
from Cuba
Panopeus Herbstii, var. serrata, De Saussen.
Numerous small specimens, both male and female, from un-
der stones on the beach of St. George’s Causeway, and at the
mouth of Harrington Sound. The specimens vary greatly in
color, some being very light, others dark brown, while a few are
reddish ; otherwise they are identical in structure.
The species, described in the Hist. Nat. dw Mexique et des
Antilles (Crustac., p. 16, pl. 1, fig. 7), had previously been recorded
from the Bermudas.
Lobopilumnis Agassizii, Stimpson.
One small male, agreeing well with Stimpson’s description
(Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., ii, p. 142) except in that it lacks the
subhepatic spine. Recorded from Bermuda and Florida.
Neptunus hastatus, L.
N. dicanthus.
Two small males.
Geocarcinus lateralis, Frem.
148 THE BERMUDA ISLANDS.
Numerous large specimens, from the banks and fields near
the south shore. We found them specially abundant near the
locality known as Spanish Mark or the Chequer Board, and
again not far from Peniston Pond. The burrows in places ex-
tend diagonally three or four feet, or even more, beneath the
surface, and the animals, rapidly retreating into these, are fre-
quently difficult to capture.
This is, doubtless, the species that is referred to by Willemoés-
Suhm in the Challenger narrative as Gecarcinus lateralis, and
is apparently the G. lagostoma (?) described by Miers in the
systematic portion of the Challenger Reports (Zoology, XVII,
p. 218), in so far as this description applies to the single Ber-
muda specimen.
Nautilograpsus minutus, L.
One small specimen dredged off Shelly Bay.
Grapsus maculatus, Cateshy.
One large female, and numerous empty shells from Harris’s
Bay, south shore.
Pachygrapsus transversus, Gibbes.
Numerous specimens, including ovigerous females; very
abundant on the rocks about the mouth of Harrington Sound,
and also on the Pigeon Rocks, Bailey’s Bay.
Recorded from Florida, West Indies, Australia.
Cyclograpsus integer, Milne-Edwards.
One small female. Species recorded from Brazil and Florida.
Goniopsis cruentatus, Latr.
One female, from the mangrove swamp of Hungary Bay,
south shore. Although the species was very abundant at this
locality we only succeeded in catching a single individual.
The mangrove crab, or “mangrove climber,” as the animal is
sometimes called, burrows among the thickets of mangrove
stems and roots, up which it not infrequently climbs to a height
of several feet. The great similarity existing between its color-
ing and that of the bright and partially withered leaves of the
ZOOLOGY. ARTHROPODA. 149°
mangrove, especially in the shades of yellow and red, renders
the animal difficult of detection, and often at a distance of only
a few feet, buried among the fallen leaves, these agile creatures
escaped observation, even when attentively sought after. We
have here one of the most remarkable instances of protective
coloring, or semi-mimicry, with which I am acquainted.
Sesarme cinerea, Bosc. ;
Numerous specimens, from the beach of Flatts Village.
The species was seen almost everywhere scampering over the
rocks.
Calappa fiammea, Herbst.
A single male individual obtained through purchase. Spe-
cies previously recorded from the Bermudas.
ANOMURA.
Petrolisthes armata, Gibbes.
Five specimens, obtained: on the beach of Flatts Village,
which appear to be identical with the form described under
this name from Florida (Proc. Amer. Assoc., 1850, p. 190).
Cenobita Diogenes, Latr.
A number of living specimens obtained at Wistowe, opposite
Flatts Village, and kindly presented to us by Miss Edith
Allen, daughter of the American Consul. Most of the animals
are still living (July), and apparently flourishing, twelve
months after their capture. The shells occupied by the
largest individuals are those of Natica catenoides.
Calcinus obscurus, Stimpson.
Several specimens obtained on the beach of Flatts Village.
Clibenarius (Pagurus) tricolor, Gibbes.
Numerous on the beach of Flatts Village and at the St.
George’s Causeway ; under stones, etc.
MACRURA.
Palinurus Americanus, Lamk,
150 THE BERMUDA ISLANDS.
We observed a number of specimens of the large Bermuda
crayfish, but unfortunately obtained none. I am_ unable,
therefore, to state positively if the species is correctly referred,
but in all probability it is the same as the common West
Indian form.
Scyllarus sculptus, Milne-Edwards.
One specimen, purchased at the Crawl, which agrees with
. Milne-Edwards’ description (Hist. Nat. des Crust., ii, p. 283) and
Lamarck’s illustration in the Encyclopédie, pl. 320. The
locality of the original specimen appears to have been un-
known, nor have I been able to obtain data regarding this
species from any of the later writers, by many of whom it is
entirely ignored.
Alpheus avarus, Fabr.
A. Edwardsii, Audouin.
A. Bermudensis, Spence Bate.
A series of some twenty specimens collected at the same
‘locality shows considerable variety of form. The smaller
specimens are evidently the A. Bermudensis of the Challenger
Reports, while the larger ones, agreeing with these in the
structure of the head, ete, more nearly approximate in the
configuration of the hand A. avarus and A. Edwardsii, the
former a common Old World species, and the latter, a species
described from the Cape Verde Islands. Our series contains
what might be considered undoubted representatives of all
three (so-called) species, showing all the gradations that unite,
or separate the forms from one another. Hence, I am con-
strained to look upon them as mere varietal forms of a single
species, the Alpheus avarus of Fabricius. The older the speci-
mens, the more deeply grooved is in most cases the hand.
Alpheus minus, Say.
A number of species taken from sponges and tunicates
collected in Harrington Sound. All the individuals were of
small size, measuring rather less than an inch in length,
although the females were abundantly provided with eggs.
Alpheus formosus, Gibbes,
ZOOLOGY. ARTHROPODA. 151
One specimen (dredged) which agrees well with Gibbes’ de-
scription (Proc. Amer. Assoc., 1850, p. 196), and seems to indi-
cate that the species is distinct from Alpheus minus, with which
it is united by Kingsley. The specimen is larger than any of
the individuals of A. minus, and is also differently colored,
although appearing identical in alcohol.
Palemonella tenuipes, Dana.
Several specimens dredged off Shelly Bay, which agree per-
fectly with the species described by Dana from the Sooloo Sea
(U.S. Exploring Expedition, Crustacea, p. 582). The remark-
able distribution here indicated induced me to make a very
careful examination of the Bermudian species, which has left
no doubt in my mind as to the identity of the forms from the
antipodal regions of the earth’s surface. The only other
known species of Palwmonella, P. orientalis (Dana), is likewise
an inhabitant of the Sooloo Sea (Dana, op. cit. ; Spence Bate,
Challenger Reports, Zoology, XXIV, p. 786).
Palemon affinis, Milne-Edwards.
Numerous specimens from shallow water, Castle Harbor.
All are exactly like one another except in the number of teeth
on the beak, which may be 8 above and 4 below, or in rela-
tions of 8-3, 7-3, 9-3, and 9-4. This character is manifestly
a very variable one, and, therefore, of little or no value from
a classificatory point of view. The specimens agree well with
the descriptions and figures of 4d. affinis, although that
species has hitherto been recorded, as far as I am aware, only
from the Pacific (obtained by Dana off New Zealand). The
species is near to the Eurafrican P. squilla, but yet sufficiently
distinct to permit of ready recognition as only an allied form.
It is remarkable, in view of the distribution and the num-
ber of specimens that we obtained of this species, and the
position of the island group, that we should have failed to ob-
tain any individuals of the common form of the eastern
United States, Palemon vulgaris. Whether the species is
152 THE BERMUDA ISLANDS.
entirely absent or not I cannot of course say, but it is surpris-
ing that it should not have been observed by us.
Penzus velutinus, Dana.
One specimen, which agrees with the figure and description
of the species obtained by Dana off the Sandwich Islands (U.
8. Exploring Expedition, Crustacea, p. 604), and which was
subsequently collected by the Challenger party at various
points in the Pacific, and between Australia and New Guinea
(Challenger Reports, Zoology, XXIV, p. 253). This species, as
well as all the immediately related forms, has, as far as I
know, been found thus far only in the Pacific. The case is,
therefore, another example of remarkable geographical distri-
bution.
STOMATOPODA.
Gonodactylus chiragra, Latr.
One specimen from the beach of Flatts Village.
OBSERVATIONS ON THE INSECTS OF THE BERMUDAS.
BY
Pp. R. UHLER.
The present list of insects enumerates chiefly those brought
together by the recent exploration of Prof. Heilprin, and it
does not include the specimens belonging to the orders
Coleoptera, Lepidoptera, and Hymenoptera. Although con-
stituting only a small collection, it is of much interest as
throwing new light upon a recently constituted fauna which
has been only superficially noticed. But very few insects have
-hitherto been recorded from this group of coral islands, and
much arduous collecting is still needed to gather a full series
of the insects settled there. Representatives of large groups in
nearly all the orders have not yet been reported as occurring
on these islands, although we know that the conditions are
favorable for the settlement and increase of many of them.
As a notable instance we may cite the absence of such families
ZOOLOGY. ARTHROPODA. 158
as Hydrobatidae, Notonectidae and Corisidae, in the aquatic
Hemiptera; and of the Ephemeridae among the Pseudoneuroptera.
White ants and Psocidae likewise remain unrecorded; and the
Diptera, a numerous host, seem to have been almost totally
ignored. That part of the assemblage to which attention has
been hitherto directed is almost entirely Nearctic in character,
and corresponds with the fauna which exists in the eastern
part of the United States from Cape Cod to northern Florida.
A very few species, such as Blabera Americana and Labidura
riparia, occur in the Bermudas, but they are wanderers which
frequent vessels, and are liable to be transported to places
where they make no permanent stay. There are, however,
multitudes of Neotropical forms, residents of the West Indies
and southern Florida, which we look for in connection with
the palmettos and tropical fruit trees and shrubs that are now
permanently settled in those islands; but these forms are still
lacking in our collections. Can it be that these insect absentees
are only such as live in the upper parts of the high trees, and
that do not descend during the daylight so as to be noticed by
collectors? Mr. J. M. Jones, in his “ Naturalist in Bermuda,”
has given some account of a few insects belonging to this lo-
cality, but his attention seems to have been directed almost
exclusively to the showy or more conspicuous kinds. It is
therefore with earnest solicitude that we await the time when
some acute collector will undertake to solve the problem of
insect settlement which lies deeply buried in the history of
this little group of islands.
HEMIPTERA.
CYDNIDA.
Pangeus bilineatus, Say.
A fore-leg only of this curious black hurrowing Cydnid was
present in the bottle of specimens. It agrees with the same or-
gan of some individuals in my own collection; and I had
previously examined a perfect specimen of this species which
was brought from Bermuda by Mr. J. M. Jones.
154 THE BERMUDA ISLANDS.
PENTATOMIDA.
Nezara viridula, Linn.
One specimen, a female of the uniformly green variety, is
present in the collection. This species has been widely dis-
tributed throughout most parts of the warm divisions of both
the Old and the New World. It iscommon in North Carolina,
Georgia and Florida, besides the West Indies, and it might
readily have been transported to Bermuda with plants by ves-
sels from either of the localities mentioned.
J ASSID/E.
Ceelidia olitoria, Say.
Only the head of a specimen occurs with the other insects
in the bottle. This insect is easily identifiable, but it must be
regretted that the entire insect was not present, for further in-
vestigation. This little leaf-hopper is very common upon the
black alder in many of the Atlantic States, and it is a matter
of much interest to know upon what plant it lives in Bermuda.
HOMOPTERA.
CICADID A.
Cicada tibicen, Linn.—C. pruinora, Say.
Said to occur on the main island. Mr. J.M. Jones says: “A
very noisy individual, very appropriately named ‘scissor
grinder’, may certainly be heard, if not seen, during the hot
weather. It is a very quick sighted insect, and is difficult to
capture. It remains perfectly motionless until the net: is
drawn towards it, when off it starts with a swift jerk anda
loud buzz of derision.” This is our common green Cicada of
the United States, and it does not belong to Fidicina as the
author quoted supposes.
PSEUDONEUROPTERA.
Mesothemis longipennis, Burm.
A damaged specimen is present. It proves to be a male of
the strongly colored variety, with the base of the wings,
ZOOLOGY. ARTHROPODA. 155
especially of the posterior ones, deeply suffused with fulvous.
Lestes unguiculata Hagen.
By putting together the pieces of a disintegrated specimen,
it has been possible to identify this very interesting little
species. It proves to be a female, of the fully developed type
of coloration, and differs in no respect from the well matured
adults which are common in New Jersey and Maryland.
The foregoing are both freshwater types of the order, and
must have passed through their young stages in places where
suitable food could be procured. This goes to show that ponds
or swamps of fresh or mildly brackish water must exist in the
vicinity of the places from which these specimens were taken.
Neither of them belongs to the strong-winged and widely rov-
ing Odonata, which fly without hesitation across hundreds of
miles of open ocean. Possibly the progenitors of these species
might have been wafted by high winds across the six hun-
dred miles of oceanic surface between the coast of Carolina
and the Bermuda Islands. We know that strong winds, blow-
ing off the mainland of Maryland and Virginia, carry count-
less numbers of nearly all kinds of insects out over the ocean,
and that many of these being dropped into the waves are re-
turned to the shores by the tides and piled up in windrows
along the beaches. Among these we have often found the
half drowned dragon-flies mixed in with the thick piles of
beetles, bugs, wasps, and flies which stretched along the line of
the retreating tide.
This suggests the fact that either the tadpoles of frogs, or
the larvee of other insects, must be present in the standing
water of these islands, to afford food to the voracious larve
and nymphs of these dragon-flies.
It is extremely improbable that these are the only kinds of
Odonata inhabiting the Bermudas. The swift-winged schnas,
and some of the large and strong species of Tramea and
Libellula have been seen on ships at a greater distance from
the mainland than the position of these islands. We should
,
156 THE BERMUDA ISLANDS.
therefore expect to find such forms as Anaz Junius, Tramea Caro-
lina, Pantala flavescens, and perhaps Libellula semifasciata and
Lepthemis hematogastra, hawking over one or another part of
the low districts of Bermuda, and especially in places where
mosquitoes develop in greatest numbers.
DERMAPTERA.
Labidura riparia, Pallas.
Forficula gigantea, Fab.
A few specimens of the male of this large and showy ear-
wig are present in the collection. Two of these measure 10
lines to the end of the abdomen, while the chele have a
length of fully three lines. This species was originally de-
rived from the region of the Mediterranean, but it has recently
been widely distributed by commerce to parts along the eastern
border of the United States, and no doubt the same agency
has transferred it to the soil of the Bermudas.
ORTHOPTERA.
BLATTIDA.
Blabera Americana, Linn.
Several specimens both of the adult and larval form, are in
the collection. They differ in no respect from the usual types
which are now distributed over most of the world by the
activities of commerce. This species is common in warehouses
near the docks in some of our cities adjacent to the Atlantic
coast, but it seems not to have formed a permanent lodgment
in any of them. The supply is kept up by the frequent
arrivals of vessels from tropical countries, iti which they rest
concealed between the packages of merchandise.
Panchlora Madere, Fab.
This is another common cockroach widely distributed by
the agency of commerce. It is alluded to in the work of J. M.
Jones, under the name Blatta Maderensia, as being seen in
“cellars and other dark places, on these islands, where it
is commonly known by the name of ‘ Knocker,’ from a habit it
ZOOLOGY. ARTHROPODA. 157
has of making a noise like a person gently tapping a box, or
skirting board.”
ACRYDUDA.
Stenobothrus maculipennis, Scudder.
A pair of the sexes, from which the colors have been pretty
thoroughly extracted by the alcohol, is present in this collec-
tion. In points of structure they correspond with specimens
common to the region around Baltimore. Yet it is to be re-
gretted that the entire absence of original color and conse-
quent obscurity of pattern of marking make it impossible to
ascertain to which one of the varieties these individuals belong.
GRYLLIDA.
Gryllus luctuosus, Serv.
This abundant North American cricket seems to be well
settled upon the islands, although we are not informed as to
its habits and distribution in that locality. It is the most lit-
toral of our species inhabiting the Atlantic region, and finds a
home in all the States from easteru Massachusetts, on Cape
Cod, to the neighborhood of Saint Augustine, Florida.
Evidence is no longer wanting as to the modifications in the
length and structure of the wings and wing-covers of this
species. From an examination of one colony after another on
one of the beaches south of Baltimore, at intervals through a
period of more than twenty years, I am led to the conclusion
that the small colonies of twenty or more individuals are de-
rived from the eggs of a single female. Several times the tide
has carried off and drowned all the individuals from a short
sand beach, which had to be re-stocked by another brood the
succeeding year. By aiding in this work through the intro-
duction of gravid females from other beaches, I have essen-
tially restored the original condition of the colony. In these
assemblages a small number of full-winged individuals occur
almost every year, and during times in which the beach
becomes clogged by excess of mud or carbonaceous matter the
crickets become partly darker in color. A great advantage is
158 THE BERMUDA ISLANDS.
gained in studying this species, because of the great length of
its ovipositor and the greater proportions of all its organs, as
compared with its nearest relatives in the same section of
country. The black species which we have all along regarded
as Gryllus Pennsylvanicus Burm. lives almost within the same
territory, but it prefers the dark loamy soils farther inland,
and only ventures upon the open pale sand beaches when
hard pressed for food or moisture.
Further, the G. luctuosus is very variable in color and pat-
tern of marking in the various young stages, as well as in the
fully adult. The G. Pennsylvanicus on the other hand is very
slightly variable in color, and has a much shorter ovipositor, but
it also has occasional individuals of both sexes fully winged.
Now the specimens brought in from Bermuda display pre-
cisely the same differences of degree and kind of color and
structure that we observe belonging to those colonies inhabit-
ing the tidal region south and east of Baltimore. From Ber-
muda the long and short winged individuals are present in
both sexes, and the colors vary in both young and adults.
LOCUSTIDA.
Orchelimum vulgare, Harris.
A badly broken female specimen is the only representative
of this form in the collection. The length and form of the
ovipositor and the shape and markings of the head and pro-
notum definitely refer it to this species.
DIPTERA.
TABANIDA.
Tabanus, sp. ?
This is one of the smaller horse-flies, related to T: lineola, Fabr.,
but in color it resembles the T. cincta, Fabr. The specimens are
too much altered to be accurately determined.
Odontomyia, sp. ?
Two specimens are in the collection.
Sarcophaga carnaria, Linn.
One specimen of the usual type is present in the collection.
ZOOLOGY. ARTHROPODA. 159
A CONTRIBUTION TO THE KNOWLEDGE OF THE SPIDER FAUNA OF THE
BERMUDA ISLANDS.
BY
DR. GEO. MARX.
Little has been heretvfore known of the spider fauna of the
Bermudas. Mr. Blackwall described six species in the Ann.
and Mag. of Nat. Hist., 1868; and Prof. E. Simon, in speaking
of the Arachnida of the Atlantic Islands in the Annales
Soc. Entom. de France, 1888, has none to add to the list of Mr.
Blackwall. He, however, alludes to the character of the Ber-
muda spider fauna as appearing to be related to that of the
Azores and the Canary Islands.
Lately, Prof. Angelo Heilprin, of Philadelphia, visited the
Bermudas and collected there twelve species, and by his kind-
ness I have been able to study this addition to the spider
fauna of that region. :
Mr. Blackwall described the following species:
Loxosceles rufescens, Luc.
Epeira gracilipes, Blackw.
Xysticus pallidus, Blackw.
Salticus diversus, Blackw.
Heteropoda venatoria, Linn.
Filistata depressa, Koch.
The collection of Prof. Heilprin contains the following
species:
Uloborus Zosis, Walck.
Nephila clavipes, Koch.
Epeira caudata, Hentz.
Epeira labyrinthea, Hentz.
Theridium tepidariorum, Koch.
Argyrodes nephile, Taez.
Pholcus tipuloides, Koch.
Dysdera crocata, Koch.
Menemerus Paykullii, Aud.
Menemerus melanognathus, Luc.
160 THE BERMUDA ISLANDS.
Heteropoda venatoria, Linn.
Lycosa Atlantica, nov. spec.
Loxosceles rufescens, Luc., has been found in the West Indies,
Central America and Florida.
Heteropoda venatoria, Linn. seems to occur, under a certain
latitude, everywhere around the globe.*
Filistata depressa, synonymous (according to Simon) with
Filistata capitata, Hentz, is quite common in the southern part
of the United States.
Uloborus Zosis, Walck., is recorded from the West India
Islands, Central and South America, and occurs also some-
times in southern Florida.
Nephila clavipes, Koch, is found in Brazil, Central America,
Florida, Texas, and Mississippi.
Eperia caudata, Hentz, inhabits the United States from
Massachusetts to Georgia.
Epeira labyrinthea, Hentz, is also common in the United
States, and has been collected in the West Indies, Central and.
South America, as far south as the Straits of Magellan, and in
California.
Theridium tepidariorum, Koch, is common to Europe and
America.
Argyrodes nephilz is reported from Peru, Cayenne and the
Southern States of the United States.
Pholeus tipuloides, Koch, has been described by this author
in his work “Die Arachniden. Australiens,”’ page 281, from
specimens collected at the Samoa Islands.
Dysdera crocata, Koch, is recorded from Greece, France and
Germany, and is also common in the United States.
Menemerus Paykullii, Aud., and Menemerus melanognathus,
Luc., have been found nearly everywhere on the globe.
From this material it is difficult to infer the true character
of the fauna of these Islands. The frequent arrival of vessels
*See an article by Rev. H. C. McCook, in Procee ]. Academy Nat. Sci. Philad.,
1878.
NOLTINVH
een
———_
YOM DU Ra iy,
+ Aaemturins
ZOOLOGY. ARTHROPODA. 161
from many foreign ports, the drift of the Gulf Stream, and
other causes, have introduced into this region a number of
species originally foreign to that locality, but which, in time,
not only have acclimatized themselves, but have, in a more
or less marked degree, driven away and extinguished the in-
digenous spider fauna.
This fact has been noticed in all localities open to the im-
portation of a foreign element. These species are then called
cosmopolitan, and by far the greater number of those brought
to notice by Mr. Blackwall and Prof. Heilprin bear this char-
acter; but drawing a superficial conclusion from this material
it seems that the spider fauna of the Bermudas is more
American than anything else, for out of the seventeen species
now known, only four are original (so far) to these Islands, and
nine are found also in the limits of the United States.
Lycosa Atlantica, nov. spec.
Cephalothorax dark olivaceous brown, with a narrow longi-
tudinal yellow band over the middle, which begins at the pos-
terior margin and runs over the whole length into the region
of the first eye row. Another, equally colored, but somewhat
broader, band runs at the sides, above the lateral margin, ter-
minating at the sides of the pars cephalica. Mandibles dark
brown with long, thick, and black pubescence. Maxille and
labium more reddish brown; sternum lighter, olivaceous yel-
low with a lighter border, hairy. Palpi and legs uniformly
light olivaceous yellow, with black hairs and without rings or
markings, tarsal joints of the former infuscated. Abdomen:
dorsum dark olivaceous brown with a narrow, whitish, slightly
spear-shaped figure, which is edged by a very narrow blackish
line; behind this a row of four rather indistinct white (small)
round spots, which reach the apex. Venter light yellow, mid-
dle region still lighter.
Cephalothorax as long as patella X, tibia IV; one-third
longer than wide; back straight, evenly sloping in back and
front, face nearly perpendicular. Lower eye row longer than
162 THE BERMUDA ISLANDS.
second. Middle eyes of lower row about twice as large as the
lateral eyes. Distance between the large eyes of the second
row smaller than their diameter; eyes of the third row as
large as middle ones of the first row. Mandibles as long as
tibia III. Cephalothorax long, 6 mm.; broad, 45 in the mid-
dle region; in front, 2°2.
Abdomen, long, 6 mm. Mandibles, 2°7.
FemurI 4 Patella 2 Tibia 3°38 Metatar-us 28 Tarsus2°2 Total, 14:3
“a II 38 “ 2 “ 3 ee 27 “ 2 “ 13.5
“ Ill 34 ee 1:8 66 28 6 8 “ 15 “ 12-5
“ IV 5 “ 21 “« 4 “c 55 “ 24 “ 19
EXPLANATION OF Puate 14.
Fig. 1. Uloborus Zosis, Walck. Female.
la. Abdomen from the side.
Lb. Epigynum.
lc. Male palpus.
Fig. 2. Menemerus Paykullii, Aud.
NOTES ON A SMALL COLLECTION OF MYRIAPODS FROM THE
BERMUDA ISLANDS.
BY
CHARLES H. BOLLMAN.
The followitig species, which were collected by Prof. Heil-
prin in the Summer of 1888, although limited in number,
show the diverse origin of the myriapod fauna of the Bermuda
Islands. Heretofore, Julus Moreleti had only been found in the
Azores Islands; Mecistocephalus Guildingii in the West Indies;
Lithobius lapidicola in Europe; and Spirobolus Heilprini, by
having scobina, shows its West Indian and not African origin,
for all the Spiroboli found in the latter continent belong to the
subgenus from which scobina are absent.
These four species, besides a specimen of Scolopendra sub-
spinipes which I have in my collection, are all that have as yet
been reported from the Bermuda Islands.
Spirobolus Heilprini, sp. nov.
ZOOLOGY. ARTHROPODA. 163
Diag.—Related to Spirobolus flavocinctus, Karsch., but the
segments very distinctly segmented ; anterior part not striate ;
antenne and legs reddish-brown.
Type-—Museum Acad. Nat. Sci. Phil. Greenish-black, pos-
terior margin of segments rufous; antenne and legs reddish-
brown. Slender, anterior segments scarcely attenuated. Ver-
tex smooth, sulcus shallow ; clypeus only moderately emargin-
ate, foveole 2 + 2, distant; sulcus sub-continuous with verti-
cal. Antenne rather slender, reaching second segment’ in
both sexes. Ocelli arranged in a suboval or subtriangular
patch, 45-55, in seven or eight series. Segments not smooth ;
posterior parts above with short and wavy stric, beneath with
short and straight strive; median part with a transverse sulcus
which ends above repugnatorial pore; posterior above with
a few striz, beneath almost smooth or with a few weak oblique
strie. Lateral lobes of first sezment rounded, a weak mar-
ginal sulcus. Anal segment with a flat, thick mucro, which
passes beyond valves; anal valves weakly margined, not
punctate; anal scale obtusely angled. Repugnatorial pore
placed on anterior division, small and rather deeply set. Legs
extending slightly beyond sides of body. Male:. slenderer
than female; coxe of 3d, 4th, and 5th pairs of legs produced
into short lobes; tibia and first two tarsal joints beneath with
an oval roughened lobe; joints of anterior legs short and thick,
third and fourth pairs of legs strongest; tarsi without a pad ;
ventral plate of copulation-foot triangular, as high as foot, its
base not concave, its posterior surface ridged, thus making the
plate of a triangular-pyramidal form; anterior part of first
foot not as high as ventral plate, triangularly pointed, the ven-
tral plate ridge separating them; posterior part of anterior
foot as high as ventral plate, its apex with a short blunt lobe
on its posterior surface; posterior copulation-foot bifid, pro-
jecting out of the opening, the upper branches flattened and
fan-shaped at the end, which is convex ; lower branch elongate-
lanceolate, its upper edge serrate ; basal part of foot rectangular
and white, while the upper part is yellowish.
164 THE BERMUDA ISLANDS.
Segments male, 46; female, 44.
Length 52™, width 3°8™"-4:2™
This species is described from six broken and badly pre-
served specimens. In the type of copulation-foot it resembles
S. arboreus and S. Dugesi, and it is very probable that all
the species belonging to this group have the same type, i.e. the
ventral plate triangular and as high as posterior part of an-
terior part, while the anterior part is less, the posterior foot
bifid and projecting out of the opening.
T have named this species after Prof. Angelo Heilprin, of the
Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia.
Julus Moreleti, Lucas.
In the collection are a number of female specimens which
I refer to this species. It has only been found in the Azores
Islands.
These specimens have the strie of the anterior division of
the segments not so irregular as is represented in Porath’s figure
of the species.*
Segments 42-49. Adult almost black, legs reddish-brown;
young dusky, with a lateral row of black spots and a medium
black dorsal line, bordered with yellowish.
Mecistocephalus Guildingii, Newport.
Three specimens. These are so moulded and broken that
it is almost impossible to make much out of them; but in the
characters of the head they seem to be identical with the West
Indian species.
Lithobius lapidicola, Meinert.
Two specimens, male and female. Joints of antenne 26;
ocelli 8 or 9, in three series; coxal pores male 2, 3, 3, 2, female
3, 4, 4, 3; spines of first pair of legs, 0, 1,1; of penultimate
pair, 1, 3, 3,1; of anal pair, 1, 3, 2,0; spines of female geni-
talia stout, claw very distinctly tripartite, middle lobe not
much the longest; length male 7™"; female 8™”.
*Am nagra Myriopoder frfu Azorerna, Qfver. Kongl. Vet. Akad. Forh.
, Stockh., 820, 1870.
ZOOLOGY. ARTHROPODA. 165
It is very possible that these specimens are not identical
with L. lapidicola, a European species; but as they are rather
mutilated, I have hesitated to describe them as new.
IX.
\
ZOOLOGY OF THE BERMUDAS (continued).
MOLLUSCA.
The species of mollusks enumerated in the following pages,
although probably far short of the actual number found in
the region, give a good idea of the character of the mollus-
can fauna of the archipelago. Somewhat more than 170
marine forms, and 30 terrestrial species, are catalogued ; before
our visit barely more than one-half of this number had been
officially recorded from the Bermudas. The general relation-
ship of this fauna has already been discussed in Chapter V,
and it is, therefore, not necessary to enter here into any further
details connected with the subject.
CEPHALOPODA.
Cuttle fishes are said to be abundant in the Bermudian
waters, but we were not very successful in our search after
these animals. Two moderately large octopods, which we
could only see, but not obtain, may possibly be the common
West Indian Octopus vulgaris, or one of the forms that have
been separated off from it as a distinct species. We made
considerable efforts to capture one of these, but all our at-
tempts to dislodge the creature from its hold upon the interior
of a rock-crevice were unvailing. The following species
(Octopus chromatus) was obtained beneath a stone on the beach
of Flatts Village.
ZOOLOGY. MOLLUSCA. 167
Octopus chromatus, n. sp.
Argonauta.
It seems to me likely that at least two forms of the argonaut
are found here—Argonauta hians and A. Argo. Unfortunately
I am compelled te rely upon my memory alone for the de-
termination of these forms, and possibly I may be in error.
The animal or parts of the animal of the argonaut have been
several times captured on the Bermudian shores, and Mr. Bar-
tram, of Stock’s Point, has a beautifully preserved specimen
of one of the species that was caught, I believe, some forty
years ago, or more.
Spirula Peronii, Lam.
The shell of this cephalopod is very abundant, and may be
found largely gathered in with the strewn Gulf-wrack which
in most places lines the coast. The shells are also found in
quantities, a half dozen or more, in the tidal rock-cavities,
whither they had been swept by the sea.
GASTEROPODA.*
Murex erosus, Brod.
La Paz, Panama.
Murex nuceus, Mérch.
This species was originally described from the Bermudas.
An identical form from Marco, west coast of the peninsula of
Florida, is in the collections of the Academy of Natural
Sciences of Philadelphia.
Purpura deltoidea, Lam.
Fla., Bahamas.
Purpura hemastoma, L.
var. P. undata, Lam.
P. bicostalis.
Forida, W. Indies.
* Lhe localities mentioned indicate in a genera] way the range of the species.
168 THE BERMUDA ISLANDS.
Sistrum nodulosum, Ads.
Florida, Aspinwall.
Triton cynocephalus, Lam.
St. Thomas, Philippines.
Triton pileare, L.
W. Indies, Philippines.
Triton chlorostoma, Lam.
W. Indies, Mauritius, Philippines.
Triton tuberosum, Lam,
W. Indies, Mauritius, Society Is.
Epidromus oneiwis: Reeve.
Philippines.
This species, the specimens of which are absolutely identi-
cal with the forms from the Philippine Islands, is closely re-
lated to Tryon’s Epidromus Swifti, from Antigua, but the ribs
are less prominent than in that species, and the general out-
line of the shell is more acicular.
Epidromus (Triton) lanceolatus, Menke.
I give this species on the authority of Matthew Jones (Con-
tributions to the Natural History of the Bermudas, Trans.
Nova Scotia Inst.)
Ranella cruentata, Sow.
var. RR. Rhodostoma, Beck.
R. Thome, D’Orb.
St. Thomas, Mauritius, Philippines.
Fasciolaria distans, Lam. ;
I did not myself meet with this shell. Jones obtained
a single specimen, partly imbedded in the calcareous rock,
and it is therefore not unlikely that the animal is still an in-
habitant of the surrounding waters.
Leucozonia cingulifera, Lam,
Florida,
ZOOLOGY. MOLLUSCA. 169
Hemifusus morio, L. 7 . ee
Martinique, W. Africa.
? Pisania biliratum, Reeve.
I have little doubt that the species occurring under this
name in Jones’s list is a Cantharus.
Cantharus Coromandelianus, Lam.
W. Indies.
Cantharus tincta, Cour.
Florida.
Phos, sp.?
Two young specimens which I have been unable to identify
with known species.
Nassa ambigua, Montf.
W. Indies.
Marginella apicina, Menke.
Florida, Bahamas.
Marginella minuta, Pfr.
Bahamas.
Volvaria avena, Valenc.
Florida, W. Indies.
? Volvaria pellucida,
Olivella oryza, Lam.
W. Indies.
Olivella nivea, Gmel.
W. Indies.
These two are probably one species.
2 Olivella miliola
Oliva reticularis, Lam.
Florida, W. Indies, Venezuela.
? Oliva bullula, Sow.
The species marked with this name in Jones’s list is prob-
ably Olivella oryza or O. nivea,
170 THE BERMUDA ISLANDS.
Dall, in his list of the West Atlantic marine Mollusca (Bull.
U. 8. National Museum, No. 24, 1885), includes Oliva mutica,
Say, among his Bermudian species, and quotes Krebs as his
authority. This isan error. Krebs makes no mention of the
occurrence of the species in the Bermudas (Catalogue West
Indian Marine Shells, p. 39).
Columbella mercatoria, L.
W. Indies.
Columbella cribraria, Lam.
Florida, Bahamas.
Columbella (Anachis) sp. ?
A form closely allied to A. plicaria, from New Caledonia.
Cythara (Pleurotoma), u. sp.
Identical with a form from Key Largo, Florida.
Conus Agassizii, Dall.
Strombus gigas, L.
Florida, W. Indies, 8. America.
Strombus accipitrinus, Mart.
W. Indies.
All the specimens of this species that I have seen from the
Bermudas lack the epidermis, and have the columellar sur-
face of a leaden, gray color. They seem to differ from
the normal type of the species in having a broader and more
elevated spire, and in a more regular nodulation of the body-
whorl.
Cyprza cervus, L.
W. Indies, Panama.
This species grows to a very large size. A specimen which
I had the privilege of examining in the collection of Mr. Bar-
tram, of Stock’s Point, far surpasses in this respect all other
specimens of the species which have come to my notice. The
species occurs as a sub-fossil at St. George’s and elsewhere.
ZOOLOGY. MOLLUSCA. 171
Cyprea cinerea, Gmel.
Also occurs as a sub-fossil. .
Trivia quadripunctata, Gray.
Bahamas.
Trivia suffusa, Gray.
Bahamas.
I believe that these two forms are merely varieties of one
and the same species, being connected by a number of inter-
mediate types.
Cyphoma gibbosa, L.
Florida, Cuba.
Dolium perdix, L.
W. Indies, Pacific Islands.
Natica canrena, L.
Florida, W. Indies, Costa Rica.
The nidus of probably this species, which we found in the
Flatts Inlet, is a collar of lime-mud, in form very much like
that of Natica heros, of the east American coast.
Natica lactea, Guild.
This species is very close to, if not identical with, Natica
Flamingiona, Recl., from the Feejee Islands.
Natica Marochinensis, Gmel.
W. Indies, W. Africa, Sandwich Islands.
Crepidula convexa, Say.
Eastern United States.
‘Two small specimens obtained through the kindness of Miss
A. Peniston, which are seemingly this species.
1 Crepidula fornicata, L. (young.)
Phorus agglutinans, L.
This is probably a rare shell. We obtained but a single
specimen from the rocks off Bailey’s Bay.
172 THE BERMUDA ISLANDS.
_Adeorbis.
A number of small specimens, obtained from the sands of
the north shore, which closely resemble the [Helix (Adeorlis)
cyclostomoides of Pfeiffer, from Cuba. The spire in the Bermu-
dian form is, however, practically wanting.
Scalaria clathrus, L.
S. lamellosa, Lam.
S. coronata.
South Carolina, W. Indies, Europe.
Ianthina communis, Lam.
Florida.
Common on both shores of the islands, and largely associated
with Spirula Peronii. Its occurrence away from the immediate
shore-line is, doubtless, due to wind deposit.
/
Ianthina globosa, Swn.
Florida.
This species is apparently much less abundant than the
preceding.
Turritella, sp.?
Several fragments of a species which I have been unable to
determine.
Petaloconchus, sp. ?
? Vermetus Knorri, Say.
?Vermetus radicula, Stimpson.
Siliqnaria (Tenagodus) ruber, Schum.
I give this species as a member of the Bermudian fauna on
the authority of Mérch.
Cecoum Floridanum, Stimps.
Florida.
A single specimen fron the sands of the north shore.
Cecoum termes, u. sp.
A number of specimens obtained through the kindness of
Miss Peniston,
ZOOLOGY. MOLLUSCA. 173
?Eulima Jamaicensis, Adams.
W. Indies.
Leiostraca, sp. ?
Stylifer, sp.?.
Abundant in the skin of the large holothurians (Stichopus).
I failed to obtain specitnens, and am, in consequence, ignorant
of the species.
Turbonilla pulchella, D’Orb. ‘
Chemnitzia pulchella, D’Orb.
St. Thomas.
Turbonilla pusilla, Adams.
St. Thomas.
Littorina zio-zac, Chemn.
Bahamas, Cuba.
Littorina angulifera, Lam.
Tittorina lineata, Gmel.
et. L. scabra, L.?
W. Indies.
Littorina muricata, L.
W. Indies.
Littorina Mauritiana, Lam.
Tectarius Antillarum, D’Orb.
W. Indies.
Modulus Floridanus, Conr.
Florida.
The Modulus lenticularis (Chemn.) of Jones is probably this
species.
Modulus pisum, Beck.
Placed here on the authority of Morch.
Litiopa striata, Rang.
Cerithium literatum, Brug.
W. Indies.
174 THE BERMUDA ISLANDS.
Cerithium ferrugineum, Say.
C. versicolor, Adams.
C. Bermude, Sowb.
C. Eriense, Val.
Florida, W. Indies.
Cerithium, sp.?
A form apparently closely related to Cerithiwm diadema,
Watson, from Madeira.
Potamides minimus, G nel.
P. nigrescens, Menke.
P. albovittatus, Adams.
°P. zonale (in part), Brug.
E. United States, W. Indies, Europe.
Triforis turris-Thome, Chemn.
St. Thomas.
Triforis intermedius, Adams.
St. Thomas.
Rissoina crassicostata, Adams.
St. Thomas.
Rissoina Sagraiana, D’Orb.
St. Thomas.
Rissoina micans, Adams, in Jones’s list
Hydrobia?
Nerita peloronta, L.
W. Indies.
Nerita tessellata, Gmel.
W. Indies.
Nerita versicolor, Gmel.
Florida, W. Indies, Costa Rica.
Neritina viridis, L.
W. Indies, Lancerote, Mediterranean.
ZOOLOGY. MOLLUSCA. 175
Neritina Virginea, L.
W. Indies, Brazil.
Phasianella Kochi, Phil.
South Africa.
This species is not unlikely but a variety of Phasianella
pulla, L., from the Mediterranean, the west coast of Africa, etc.
Turbo pica, L.
W. Indies, Nicaragua, Panama.
This large and beautiful shell is abundant along the south-
ern shores, where it also occurs imbedded as a sub-fossil in the
calcareous rock. It appears to be always largely water-worn,
and in no instance did it contain the animal. Indeed, I am
assured by old residents who have intentionally sought for the
animal that it has never been found in the island-waters.
Probably the animal inhabits the deeper waters, and only the
empty shell is cast upon the beach.
Astralium longispina, Lam.
Trochus (Imperator) calcar, L., of Jones’s list.
W. Indies, Honduras.
Stomatia picta, D’Orb.
St. Thomas.
Fissurella viridula, Lam.
W. Indies.
Fissurella Barbadensis, Gmel.
Barbados.
Fissurella Antillarum, D’Orb.
Cuba.
Fissurella alternata, Say.
Eastern United States, Nicaragua.
Emarginula dentigera, n. sp.
Emarginula pileum, n. sp.
176 THE BERMUDA ISLANDS.
Patella notata, Lam.
Patella confusa.
W. Indies.
.Bulla striata, Brug.
« Florida, W. Indies, Africa, ete.
Bullina (Bulla) nitidula, Dillw.
Hydatina (Bulla) physis, L.
These two West. Indian species are here enumerated on the
authority of Jones.
Utriculus'Candei, D’Orb.
- Florida, W. Indies.
‘Umbrella (Operoulatum) Bermudensis, Mérch.
On the identification of March.
Siphonaria picta, Sow.
Panama, Mazatlan.
?Siphonaria alternata, Say.
Florida.
Dentalium semistriatum, Guild.
W. Indies.
Cadulus quadridentatus, Dall.
Florida coast.
Chiton squamosus, L.
Chiton marmoratus, Gmel.
Ischnochiton purpurascens, Adams,
Tonicia Schrammi, Shuttl.
Aplysia squorea, n. sp.
Chromodoris zebra, n. sp.
LAMELLIBRANCHIATA.
Teredo, sp. ?
Found in driftwood ; species undetermined.
ZOOLOGY. MOLLUSCA.
Martesia striata, L.
On the authority of Jones.
Siliqua bidentata, Spengl.
Florida, Panama.
Macha Antillarum, D’Orb.
Lyonsia Beaui, D’Orb.
Florida, W. Indies.
Semele variegata, Lam.
Florida.
Semele orbiculata, Sow.
Florida, S. Car., W. Indies.
? Semele reticulata, Say.
Semele cancellata, Sow.
St. Thomas.
Asaphis coccinea, Martyn.
W. Indies.
Strigilla flexuosa, Say.
W. Indies.
Tellina polita, Say.
East coast America, Florida.
Tellina Gouldii, Hanley.
California.
177
Tellina Tumpzensis, Conr., from Florida, is probably identi-
cal with this species; but there is no question as to the identity
of the Bermudian and Californian forms.
Tellina Gruneri, Phil.
Tellina intastriata, Say.
Capsa spectabilis of Jones’s list.
St. Thomas.
Tellina radiata, L.
and var. Tellina unimaculata.
W. Indies.
178 THE BERMUDA ISLANDS.
Tellina interrupta, Wood.
Tellina maculosa, Lam.
St. Thomas.
Tellina levigata, L.
Bahamas.
Tellina magna, Spengl.
Florida, W. Indies.
Tellina exilis, Lam.
Guadeloupe, Jamaica.
Macoma eborea, u. sp.
Chione Venetiana, Lam.
St. Thomas, France.
Circe Cubaniana, D’Orpb.
Florida, W. Indies.
Venus cancellata, L.
Given on the authority of Jones.
Cytherea Penistoni, u. sp.
Cardium serratum, Brug.
Florida, St. Thomas.
Chama macrophylla, Chemn.
W. Indies.
Chama exogyra, Conr.
California, Mexico.
Two specimens, which are absolutely undistinguishable
from the species of the west American coast.
Chama lingua-felis, Reeve.
Chama Bermudensis, u. sp,
Lucina edentula, L.
Loripes chrysostoma of Jones’s list.
Florida, W. Indies, Nicaragua.
Lucina squamosa, Lam.
ZOOLOGY. MOLLUSCA. 179
? Lueina imbricatula, Adams.
W. Indies.
Lucina tigrina, L.
W. Indies.
Lucina imbricatula, Adams.
W. Indies, Aspinwall.
Lucina Antillarum, Reeve.
LIncina costata, D’Orb.
W. Indies.
Luoina obliqua, Reeve.
Ineina pectinata, Ads.
St. Thomas.
* Mysia pellucida, u. sp.
A form identical with the above, from St. Thomas, is con-
tained in the collections of the Academy of Natural Sciences.
Crassatella Guadelupensis, D’Orb.
W. Indies.
Arca Noe, L.
W. Indies, Europe.
Arca Deshayesii, Hanley.
St. Thomas.
I have no doubt that the Arca Americana, of Gray, men-
tioned by Jones as a very common shell of the Bermudas, is
this species.
Arca gradata, Brod.
Arca Domingensis, Lam.
Florida, St. Thomas, Mazatlan, Cape Verde I.
Arca Adamsi, Shuttl.
Florida, Cuba.
The Bermudian specimens appear to be somewhat less pro-
duced posteriorly than the more southern forms, but in other
respects they agree very closely. The species is probably
180 THE BERMUDA ISLANDS.
identical with Arca solida, B. and S., from the Californian
coast.
Arca imbricata, Brug.
W. Indies, Mazatlan, Feejee Islands.
The Arca mutabilis, of Sowerby, does not differ essentially
from this species.
Mytilus exustus, L,
Mytilus Domingensis of Jones’s list.
Modiola tulipa, L.
E. United States, Bahamas, W. Indies.
Lithodomus Antillarum, Phil.
' Tithodomus niger.
Florida, St. Thomas.
Lithodomus appendiculatus, Phil.
Cuba.
Crenella lateralis, Say.
S. Carolina, Florida.
Avicula ala-perdicis, Reeve,
Meleagrina placunoides, Reeve, of Jones’s list.
Florida, W. Indies.
Avicula Atlantica, Lam.
S. Carolina.
? Avieula macroptera, Lam.—W. Indies, E. Indies.
Perna ephippium, L.
Antilles, Indian and Pacifie Oceans.
Pinna rudis, Lam.
W. Indies.
Plicatula ramosa, L.
Florida, W. Indies.
Lima tenera, Chemn.
Lima. fragilis, Sow., of Jones’s list.
Florida.
ZOOLOGY. MOLLUSCA. 181
Pecten zig-zag, L.
W. Indies, Pacific Ocean.
Pecten imbricatus, Gmel.
St. Thomas, Pacific Ocean, Australia.
Spondylus Americanus, Lam.
W. Indies.
There seems to be much confusion regarding the species of
Spondylus which inhabit the West Indian and Bermudian
waters, and, as it appears to me, an unnecessary multiplication
of specific names. The individual variation among the
species is very great, and does not permit of that close charac-
terization of forms which has been attempted by some syste-
matists. I believe that Spondylus Americanus includes much,
if not all, of what has been described under Spondylus longi-
tudinalis, S. ustulatus, S. coccineus, and 8S. erinaceus.
Anomia ephippium, L.
America, Europe.
Ostrea frons, L.
W. Indies.
PULMONATA.
The land shells enumerated in the following list are in ex-
cess by some ten forms of the number’ hitherto credited to the
Bermudas. Most of these we collected ourselves or obtained
through the aid of local collectors; others I found in the col-
lection made a few years ago by Mr. G. Brown Goode, while a
few have been quite recently sent to me by Miss A. Peniston,
of Peniston’s, Bermuda. The remaining forms are given on
the authority of Fischer (Manuel de Conchyliologie), Bland
(quoted by Wallace in “ Island Life,” pp. 256-57), and Pfeiffer.
These are preceded by an asterisk. For the determination of
the species I am largely indebted to Mr. H. A. Pilsbry, Conserva-
tor of the Conchological Department of the Academy of Natural
Sciences, who has also prepared a special paper on the more
182 THE BERMUDA ISLANDS.
distinctive Bermudian Helices. The localities placed opposite
the species indicate in a general way their geographical dis-
tribution.
Helix (Cochlicella) ventricosa, Drap.
Mediterranean region, Canaries, Azores.
Helix (Microphysa) vortex, Pfr.’
W. Indies, 8. United States.
Helix (Polygyra) microdonta, Desh.
Texas, Florida?
Helix (Hyalosagda) discrepans, Pfr.
* Helix (Vallonia) Hatehella, Mill.
Europe, Azores.
Given on the authority of Bland, as quoted by Wallace. This
species appears to differ but little, if at all, from Helix minuta,
of Say, a. common form of the United States.
Helix appressa, Say.
Pennsylvania to Illinois and Arkansas.
+ Helix hypolepta, Shuttl.
This species, which appears to have been obtained from the
Bermudian collection of M. Bland, is very inadequately de-
scribed by Shuttleworth (Diagnosen neuer Mollusken, p. 129), so
that it is barely recognizable as a distinct species. It is closely
related to Helix minuscula, of Binney.
Pecilozonites Bermudensis, Pfr.
Pecilozonites circumfirmatus, Redf.
Pecilozonites Reinianus, Pfr.
Succinea Bermudensis, Pfr.
* Succinea fulgens, Lea.
Cuba.
* Succinea margarita, Pfr.
Hayti.
Pupa Jamaicensis, Adams.
Jamaica.
ZOOLOGY. MOLLUSCA. 183
Pupa pellucida.
W. Indies, Yucatan.
* Pupa Barbadensis, Pfr.
Barbados.
On the authority of Bland, quoted by Wallace.
Pupoides fallax, Say.
? Bulimulus nitidulus, Pfr.
United States, W. Indies.
Bulimulus decollatus, L.
Cuba, Southern Europe, ete.
This species appears to have been recently introduced, and
is not mentioned in the earlier lists of the Bermudian pul-
monates. It is, however, very abundant in places; we found
it especially numerous along the roadside near the Smith
Parish Church.
* Cecilianella (Cionella) acicula, Miill.
Central Europe, Madeira.
Stenogyra octona, Chemn.
Antilles, Caracas, Panama.
Alexia Bermudensis, Ads.
Pedipes tridens, Pfr.
This species is considered by Arango (Contribucion a la Fauna
Malacologica Cubana, p. 60) to be identical with Pedipes mirabilis,
Miuhlf., a form from Cuba, Jamaica, Guadeloupe, ete.
Melampus pusillus, Gmel.
W. Indies.
Melampus Redfieldi, Pfr.
Melampus coffea, L.
W. Indies, Mexico, Guiana.
Melampus (Tralia) cingulatus, Pfr.
Cuba, Jamaica, Porto Rico.
Truncatella Caribeensis, Sow.
184 THE BERMUDA ISLANDS.
Cuba, Jamaica.
Truncatella subcylindrica, Gray.
Cuba, St. Thomas, Porto Rico.
? Truncatella pulchella, Pfr.
Cuba, St. Thomas, Porto Rico.
Helicina convexa, Pfr.
Onchidium trans-Atlanticum, n. sp.
NEW SPECIES OF MOLLUSCA.
Octopus chromatus. (Pl. 15, fig. 1.)
Body spheroidal, somewhat acuminate behind, and im-
pressed, but not furrowed, ventrally ; mantle opening extend-
ing about one-half around the circumference of the body, and
terminating some distance below and back of the eyes. The
head not much narrower than the body ; eyes not conspicuous,
with a wart above each; funnel largely free, reaching about
half way to the base of the web, which is about as long as the
body and head combined.
Arms longest as 1. 3. 2. 4, sith cnigts possibly the second pair
outmeasured the third pair previous to contraction; slender,
very tapering, and exceedingly attenuated toward the apex
suckers fairly large, closely placed, and in regular zigzag alter-
nation from the base, contracting with a quadrangular outline.
Body granulated posteriorly, and to a less extent in the re-
gion of the neck. Color milky, closely blotched or speckled
with ochre, giving a yellowish appearance, and sprinkled with
brown.
Length of specimen about nine or ten inches.
The only form with which I can closely compare this species
is the Octopus Bermudensis of Hoyle (Challenger Reports,
Zoology, XVI, p. 94, Pl. I, fig. 5), which is described from a
single young specimen, measuring, including the arms, not
more than two and a-half or three inches. It differs from
this form in the extremely tapering and attenuated arms,
their relative lengths (1, 3. 2. 4 instead 1. 2. 3. 4), and in the
ZOOLOGY. MOLLUSCA. 185
disposition of the acetabula, which are in zigzig alternation
from first almost to last; the body is also in part granulated,
and the siphon, instead of being attached for nearly its full
length, is largely free.
I should have hesitated, perhaps, in describing this as a new
species, distinct from O. Bermudensis, and preferred supposing
that the characters indicated by Hoyle were not very clearly
marked, or that they possibly represented only the immature
form, but Hoyle distinctly states that while his specimen is
probably immature, the characters are so well marked as to
safely permit of their recognition as typical of a new species
(op. cit., p. 95). :
Aplysia equorea. (PI. 15, figs. 2, 2a, 2b).
Body broadly oval, with a moderately elongated neck ; ten-
tacles cylindrical, slit at the extremity; buccal lobes broad,
infolded; mouth between fairly developed lips; aperture to
opercular cavity on a slightly raised papilla.
Color drab or greenish ; exterior surface with thin black an-
nulations and irregular markings, which are few and scattered ;
the inside of the mantle-lobes, as well as the cover to the oper-
cular cavity, almost free of blotches.
Shell narrowly-elongate, somewhat oblique, and calcareously
lined ; longitudinally radiated, and transversely finely striated.
Length of animal about four and a-half inches.
A single specimen, found in shallow water on the south side
of Castle Harbor, opposite Tucker’s Town.
The nearest ally of this species is probably the Aplysia
ocellata of D’Orbigny, from the Canary Islands, or the common
A. dactylomela, from the eastern Atlantic, of which the former
is by some authors considered to be only a local variety (Roche-
brune, Nouvelles Archives du Muséum, 1881, p. 264). From
both of these forms, apart from other characters, it differs in
the absence of the heavy ocellation, and from A. dactylomela
in lacking the purple lining on the mantle margins. From
A. ocellata, again, it is clearly marked off by the non-maculated
186 THE BERMUDA ISLANDS.
surface of the interior of the mantle lobes and of the oper-
cular covering. The shell in the Bermudian form is compara-
tively narrower than in any other large species of Aplysia
with which I am acquainted, and wholly different in outline
from that of either of the two species above referred to. I
have fully satisfied myself on this point through an examina-
tion not only of the figures furnished by Rang and D’Orbigny
but of actual specimens.
Dobson, in a communication made before the Linnean Soc-
iety of London (Jour. Linn. Soc., Zoology, xv, p. 159, et seq.,
1881), identifies a specimen of Aplysia from the Bermudas
with the A. dactylomela, and describes the color as being “a
rich drab, marked all over with circles and streaks of velvet
black, the latter most abundant on the mantle covering the
shell and on the lateral swimming lobes. The shell agrees in
all respects with that of A. dactylomela as figured by Rang,
and the only difference observable is that the margins of the
swimming lobes are not tinged with violet. This might be
accounted for by supposing that such a fugitive color had dis-
appeared in the alcohol, but the captor does not remember to
have seen it in the living animal.” This may be the true
A. dactylomela or A. ocellata, but it is, doubtless, distinct from
the species above described. I am confirmed in this supposi-
tion by the examination of a specimen recently collected by
Prof. Dolley in the Baliamas, and which has been placed in
my hands through the kindness of Prof. Leidy. This Baha-
man form has the massive ocellation and blotching distinctive
of A. ocellata or A. dactylomela, and further agrees with these
two species (or varieties) in the form of the shell. The stellate
opening to the opercular cavity appears to be destitute of a
papilla. This is the form, probably, that Mr. Dobson received
through Surgeon R. Vacy Ash.
Deshayes described some years ago an Aplysia, ocellated
and of a yellowish color, from Guadeloupe (Journal de Con-
chyliologic, 2d. ser., ii, p. 140) under the name of Aplysia
Schrammii, but the species is so imperfectly characterized that
ZOOLOGY. MOLLUSCA. 187
it is almost impossible to determine its exact relationships.
Chromodoris zebra. (PI. 15, figs. 3, 3a.)
Animal of the form typical of the genus; head portion con-
siderably extended and expanded in motion; caudal portion
moderately elongated; base flattened; mantle beaded im-
mediately over the tail.
Color bright blue above, variously lined and streaked with
light yellow; on the dorsal surface the yellow markings are
disposed in longitudinal wavy or nearly straight lines, one or
more specially prominent lines along the dorso-lateral border.
Sides of animal irregularly reticulated or angulated with yel-
low markings; under surface: pale blue, bordered with faint
yellow.
Rhinophores deep indigo or black, the rhinophoral aperture
bordered with yellow; gills 12 or 18, black, bordered with yel-
low, and carrying blue cilia; under surface of head blue, with
yellow spots.
Length, when expanded, three and a-half inches.
Three specimens, dredged in about ten fathoms on the north
side of Harrington Sound. I dissected one of these and found
that the stomach is lodged entirely within the mass of the liver.
The alimentary canal is sharply deflected forward (dorsally)
beyond the buccal or cesophageal tracts, and is caught up in a
nerve ring proceeding from the supra-cesophageal ganglia.
This species appears to be third or fourth of the genus found
in the western Atlantic. It differs clearly from the C. picturata
of Mirch (C. Mérchii, Bergh, Mus. Godef., part xiv) and C. gonato-
phora of Bergh, two West Indian species. In the scheme of color-
ing the species appears to be nearest to Doris pulcherrima of Can-
traine (Malacologie Méditerranéenne, p. 57, Pl. 3, fig. 6, = D.
Villafranca? of Risso), from which, however, it differs in a
number of details, such as the number of gills, ete.
Onchidium (Onchidiella) trans-Atlanticum. (PI. 15, figs. 4, 4a.)
Body convex, smoke color or dark olive; lighter, dirty or
greyish-green on the under surface; pedal disk considerably
188 THE BERMUDA ISLANDS.
more than one-third the width of base, yellowish-green ; mouth
margin papillose, bunchy; under surface obscurely or obso-
letely tuberculose; dorsal surface closely verrucose, with finer
granules interspersed between the warts.
Anal aperture immediately beyond the extremity of foot,
infra-marginal to a raised border; respiratory orifice between
the anal pore and the apex of body.
Length about three-quarters of an inch.
About a dozen specimens, found in a rock hollow on the
north shore just beyond Wistowe, near Flatts Village, at an
elevation of about two feet above the water.
This is, as far as I am aware, the only species of Onchidiwm
that has thus far been recorded from the western Atlantic. Its
occurrence is, therefore, of considerable interest as bearing
upon the subject of geographical distribution. Nearly all the
species of the genus are confined to the Eurafrican and Indo-
Pacific waters, although one species is known from Arctic
America, one from the California coast, and one from the west
coast of South America (Bergh, in Semper’s Reisen im Archipel
d. Philippinen, Land Mollusks, V1).
The Bermudian species appears to be most nearly related to
O. Carpenteri, from the California coast, but differs from it in
color. The positions of the anal and respiratory apertures
differ from what is indicated by Stearns (Proe. Acad. Nat. Sci.
Phila., 1878) to exist in the west American form, although agree-
ing with the determinations made by Bergh for manifestly
the same species.
Emarginula dentigera. Pl. 17, fig. 7.
Shell flattened, scutiform, broadened posteriorly, and with
the apex slightly sub-central; surface with radiating ribs,
which alternate in size—sometimes two smaller ones between
each pair of larger ribs—and project (the larger ones) prom-
inently beyond the general margin. The impressed concentric
lines give to the ribs a knobbed appearance. Fissure fairly
long, narrow.
Length nearly .25 inch.; height ,1 inch,
ZOOLOGY. MOLLUSCA. 189
Emarginula pileum. PI. 17, fig. 6.
Shell elevated, with the form of a Phrygian cap; apex largely
posterior, well beaked; radiating lines alternate, deeply im-
pressed by the concentric lines of growth, and appearing
knobbed. Fissure moderately long, parallel-sided, and oc-
cupying the position of one of the larger ribs.
Length slightly exceeding a quarter of an inch; height .2 inch.
Cecum termes. PI. 17, fig. 5.
Shell arcuate, gradually increasing in size anteriorly, where
it is somewhat swollen; surface longitudinally costated, the
cost appearing slightly rugose near the swollen base through
the passing of the lines of growth. Mucro distinct, well
excentric.
Color of shell yellowish ; surface glossy.
Length, about .1 inch.
This form appears to be fairly abundant. It may be readily
distinguished from most of the other longitudinal costated
species by the very nearly equal diameter of the shell, which is
only slightly swollen basally.
Chama Bermudensis. Pl. 17, fig. 1.
Shell thick, ponderous, sub-cordiform ; the right valve con-
siderably smaller than the left, but yet thicker and deeper
than in most Chamas; beak of left valve prominent, spirally
incurved ; ligamental furrow in left valve deep, arciform ; den-
tal sulcus broad, moderately deep, and supported inferiorly by
a prominent plate tooth.
Muscular impressions elongated, not deep. External sur-
face roughly corrugated by the lines of growth.
Height of shell (left valve), measured to the top of beak,
about three inches; length, measured along the antero-pos-
terior axis, 2.3 inches; thickness of single valve 1.2-1.5 inch.
Dredged in large quantities in Harrington Sound.
Macoma eborea. PI. 17, fig. 2.
Shell moderately inequilateral, truncated in the lower half;
190 THE BERMUDA ISLANDS.
posterior flattened. Right valve with widely diverging car-
dinal teeth, the space between which receives the double-tooth
(grooved medially) of the left valve; lateral teeth in right
valve.
Pallial sinus large, extending more than half across the
shell; external surface (white) concentrically and delicately
lined by the lines of growth.
Length of shell three-quarters of an inch; height, two-
thirds of an inch.
Mysia pellucida. PI. 17, fig. 3.
Shell thin, convex, ovally orbicular; the umbones mod-
erately prominent; no lunule; hinge-line linear, a single
medially-grooved cardinal tooth in the left valve (resembling
Felania).
Adductor impressions oval, not much elongated. Shell
white, nearly smooth.
Length of single specimen somewhat over a half-inch;
height the same.
Cytherea Penistoni, PI. 17, fig. 4.
Shell sub-trigonal, the beaks prominently elevated; lunule
cordiform ; the dental characters normally those of the genus ;
anterior lateral tooth (left valve) triangular, lamellar.
Margin of shell even; pallial sinus broad, directed upwards,
and not quite reaching the centre of the shell. Lines of growth
closely set,and even. Shell covered with a chestnut epidermis ;
interior purplish.
Length, .6 inch; height, .5 inch.
It gives me pleasure to name this delicate, and abundantly
represented, Cytherea after my friend Miss. A. Peniston, of
Peniston’s, from whom I have received much valuable assistance
in the preparation of my material illustrating the Bermudian
fauna.
ZOOLOGY. MOLLUSCA. 191
ON THE HELICOID LAND MOLLUSKS OF BERMUDA.
BY
H. A. PILSBRY.
Through the courtesy of Professor Angelo Heilprin I have
been enabled to study the Bermudian land shells collected by
the party conducted by him during the past summer. Among
them were examples of all the helicoid species which have
been reported by previous observers from the island, some con-
taining the living animal. The species, with the exception of
a number of artificially introduced European shells, are
mostly forms well known from various West Indian localities,
such as Helix cereolus var. microdonta Desh., H. vortex Pfr. and
others ; but besides these, there are a number of shells peculiar
to Bermuda, and these last have furnished material for the
following notes.
The helicoid species confined to Bermuda are as follows: I.
Bermudensis Pfr.. H. Nelsoni Bld., H. Reiniana Pfr., H. cireum-
firmata Redf., H. discrepans Pfr. As to the systematic position
of these forms there has been considerable difference of opinion
among authors; the first, H. Bermudensis. has been placed in
Caracolus by Vou Martens, in Hyalina by Clessin, in Zonites by
Bland; H. Reiniana has been considered a Patula by Pfeiffer,
Clean, Tryon and Fischer; and H. circumfirmata and dis-
crepans have been placed in ‘Microphy ysa by Von Martens and
Binney, in Hyalosagda by Clessin, Tryon and others.
Thus it will be seen that these species have been distributed
into several genera in two distinct families. Upon examining
the soft parts, however, I find that all have essentially the
same organization and without doubt belong to the same
genus.
Dr. O. Boettger proposed in 1884, for the lower ee
fossil Helix imbricata Braun, and the H. Bermudensis Pfr., the
hame of Pecilozonites. He gave no diagnosis of the new
group, but assigned it a position betwen the typical Palearctic
192 THE BERMUDA ISLANDS.
Zonites and the American groups Zonyalina and Moreletia, a posi-
tion which the anatomical characters prove to be erroneous.
By error, the genus was quoted “ Poecilozonites Sandberger ”
in the Zoological Record for 1884, and this error was repeated
by Tryon’, who gives the first diagnosis of the group published,
with H. Bermudensis as the type and only species. We may
then consider the H. Bermudensis Pfr. the type species of the
genus. Whether the H. imbricata Braun be associated with
the Bermudian shells or not is a point still to be settled. The
superficial resemblance is marked; but, as the history of the
species of Pecilozonites teaches us, “systematizing ” helicoid
land mollusks by the shells alone is the merest guess-work.
The fact that the fossil species which Dr. Boettger proposes
to unite with the Bermudian form is from the Lower Miocene
formation of Germany, is in itself no great objection to the
view that they are congeneric; for no fact is better established
1« *% % % Endlich sei noch einer nahen Verwandten der Hocheimer unter-
miociner //elix imbricata Al. Braun gedacht, die Sandberger bekanntlich zu 7rocho-
morpha (Discus) gestellt hat. Ich gebe die Aehnlichkeit zu; aber zur Section
Videna H. u A. Adams, Discus Alb., méchte ich die betreffende fossile Art nur
ungern stellen, da alle mir bekannten lebenden Arten dieser Gruppe zum mindester
einer verdichter basalrand, der oft recht erheblich Helix-artig umgeschlagen ist (wie
z. B bei 7y. Merztana Pfr.) besitzen. Viel naher liegt daher wohl der vergleich der
Felix imbricata mit der etwas kleineren, mit zwei braunen Bandern gezierten Ayalinia
Bermudensis Pfr: von den Bermudas, deren Uebereinstimmung in allen wesentlichen
Charakteren bei directem Vergleich sofort in die Augen springen diirfte. Freilich
kommen wir hier fast von dem Regen in die Traufe,.da die systematische Stellung
dieser lebenden Art selbst noch in hohen Grad unsicher ist, was ihr Autor durch ein
vorgesetzes ‘?’ sehr richtig selbst schon angedeutet hat. Bei Hya/nia kann sie
unmdéglich bleiben. Da sie meiner Ansicht nach auch nicht in die indische, indo-
malayische und polynesische gattung Zrochomorpha passt, so diirfte eine eigene
Gruppe fur Hyal. Bermudensis und Helix imbricata 2u errichten sein, fiir welche
ich den Namen Poect/ozonites vorschlage, und die ich am liebsten zwischen die achten
paldarktischen Zondfes und die tropisch-amerikanischen Gruppen More/etia und
Zonyalina voriaufig als Section in der.Gattung Zonites Montf. einreihen méchte, bis
die Anatomie der lebenden Art eine mehr gesicherte Stellung in System an die Hand
geben wird.” O. Boettger in Mewes Fahrbuch fur Mineralogie, Geologie u. Palaeon-
tologie, 1884, ii Bd., s. 139.
2 Mauual of Conchology, 2d. series, iii, p. 19, 95.
ZOOLOGY. MOLLUSCA. 193
in malaco-geography than the close affinity existing between
the European Tertiary land Mollusca and those now inhabiting
the West Indies.’ To explain this relationship existing be-
tween two regions separated by the whole expanse of the
Atlantic various theories have been offered. One of the most
plausible is that which bridges the Atlantic by an ancient
(Eocene, early and Middle Miocene) continent—an Atlantis,
This view has been advocated by the well-known concholo-
gist Dr. W. Kobelt? and by others. :
But although this theory explains many anomalies in the
distribution of mollusks, I must freely confess that the objec-
tions to it seem to me almost insurmountable. The recent
work of the Challenger, Blake, and other deep-sea explora-
tions, all tend to confirm the view held by Guyot, Dana,
Agassiz and others, that the great oceanic basins, practically
as they exist to-day, are of great antiquity, and render the
existence of a former Atlantic continent with any considerable
Western extension, highly improbable.
A view more in accordance with the facts with which we
are at present acquainted seems to me to be the following: It
is a well ascertained truth that until towards the close of the
Miocene, large portions of Northern Africa as well as Europe
were submerged ;,and it appears probable that the westward
flowing equatorial current of the Indian Ocean extended across
northern Africa, and united with the Atlantic northern equa-
torial current, which now flows westward from northern
Africa through the Antilles into the Gulf of Mexico. This
current would afford a means of transport not only for the
free swimming embryos of marine mollusks (and there are not
1 This affinity, although doubtless very great, has been considerably exaggerated,
There is, for instance, no warrant for referring European Tertiary species to the ex-
clusively New World genera Pleurocera, Anculosa, Tulotoma, Mesodon, Carinifex,
Melantho, and others. There seems to have been no infusion of European Tertiary
types into the North American snail fauna east of the Californian region. This fauna
is truly autochthonous. ;
2 Nachrichtsblatt d. deutschen Malak. Gesell., 1887, p. 147
194 THE BERMUDA ISLANDS.
a few forms both of gasteropods and pelecypods common to
the Mediterranean and Gulf Provinces), but also, through the
agency of floating materials, trees, etc., swept from rivers,
land mollusks may have been transported across the Atlantic,
just as they have been carried by the Gulf Stream from the
West Indies to the outlying island of Bermuda,’ a distance of
over 700 miles.
A further development of the same idea explains certain
peculiarties in the distribution of species common to the
Pacific and the Gulf of Mexico. The presence of Miocene and
Pliocene deposits render it certain that there was communica-
tion between the Gulf and the Pacific across the Isthmus of
Panama as late as the Pliocene. And a portion of the equa-
torial current probably swept directly through to the Pacific.
Thus it is likely that those forms common to both sides of the
isthmus, will prove to be of Atlantic origin, and to have been
distributed westward.
The indigenous Bermudian mollusk-fauna, marine as well as
terrrestrial, has undoubtedly been derived wholly’ from the
West Indies. And since the island is typically oceanic, “a
solitary peak rising abruptly from a base only 120 miles in
diameter;” surrounded on all sides by between 2500 and 3000
fathoms depth, we have an idication here that land mollusks
of many families, Helicide, Zonitide, Succinide, Pupide, Heli-
cinide, even Vaginulidxe (for a large undescribed species of
Vaginulus exists upon the island), may be transported far out’
to sea, and, in all probability, by the agencies mentioned above.
The considerable divergence existing between the various
species of the zonitoid genus peculiar to Bermuda, Poecil-
ozonites, indicates that the island is of considerable antiquity.
We may define the genus as follows:
1 See Darwin, Origin of Species, 6th ed., p. 853. Also a paper by Mr. C. T.
Simpson, On the Distribution of Land and Fresh-water Shells in the Tropics, Conch.
Ex. ii, p. 87, 50.”
? See on this point the chapter on the “ Relationship of the Bermudian Fauna,”
ant., p. 88. A. H. : i
ZOOLOGY. MOLLUSCA. 195
PECILOZONITES.
Ceneri¢c characters: Shell helicoid, subtrochiform, depressed
conic, or subdiscoidal, perforate or umbilicate, obliquely striate,
ornamented with radiating zigzag Hammules or spiral bands
of chestnut color on elighter ground ; whorls numerous (7-10),
very slowly widening; body-whorl more or less flattened or
compressed below the usually carinate periphery, not descend-
ing anteriorly ; aperture more or less irregularly lunate; peris-
tome simple, the columellar margin slightly expanded and
thickened with a white callus which encircles the pillar within.
Animal similar in form to Helix; foot narrow, short posteriorly,
searcely reaching behind the shell, and without longitudinal
furrows above its margin or caudal mucous pore ; orifice of geni-
talia on the right side of neck, near to, but not under, the mantle;
mantle margin simple; jaw like that of imax, very thin,
arcuate, with a broad blunt median projection anteriorly ;
radula with tricuspid -central teeth having quadrate basal
plates, the central cusps projecting beyond the anterior mar-
gins of the basal plates, the side cusps rather short, with well
reflexed cutting points; lateral teeth similar but asymmetrical,
lacking the inner cusps; marginal teeth aculeate, with simple
thorn-shaped cusps and oval basal plates.
It will be seen by the above definition that the genus cannot
be included in any of the groups with which its species have
been associated by authors; the zonitoid dentition at once re-
moves it from the Helicida, and the absence of a caudal
mucous pore, the more anterior position of the orifice of the
genitalia and the coloration of the shell, separate it from
Zonites and its subgenera.
The relationship of the species of Peecilozonites to one an-
other is shown by the similarity of the radulew and jaws, and
of the external characters of the animal; in the shells,
which at first glance seem to be a heterogenous assemblage, by
the callus which coats the columella, the compression of the
whorl below the periphery, and especially by the color-pattern,
196 THE BERMUDA ISLANDS.
which is the same in all the species, consisting of zigzag flam-
mules radiating from the sutures. In P. Bermudensis the
flammules coalesce into continuous bands above and below
the periphery in the adult; but an examination of young
specimens reveals the same pattern that is found in P. circum-
firmata, P. Reiniana, ete. The internal spiral lamella of P. cir-
cumfirmata would incline one at first to separate it from the
other species; but it is. scarcely of generic importance, in
view of the fact that in all other characters the species is very
similar to P. Bermudensis, ete.
The following analysis shows the inter-relations of the
various species :
A. Base of shell with a revolving lamina within.
circumfirmatus, discrepans.
B. Base of shell without lamina.
a. Aperture rounded below; umbilicus wide -Reinianus.
b. Aperture angulate below; umbilicus narrow
Bermudensis, Nelsoni.
Pecilozonites Bermudensis, Pfr. (Pl. 16, figs. E. c.)
The typical species is a form of about twenty-five mm.
diameter, solid, coarsely irregularly striate and acutely car-
inate at the periphery ; a broad chestnut band usually encircles
the shell above the periphery, and another below it, but these
are sometimes absent; the inner whorls of the spire usually
retain traces of the original color-pattern of radiating flames,
and the base in young examples is radiately streaked (PI). 16,
fig. £). The base is convex, and not indented around the nar-
row and deep umbilicus, but is angulated at its margin; the
parietal wall is generally covered by a shining white layer,
with which the interior of the shell is lined. Reeve, Tryon
and other authors have figured the shell of this species.
The jaw is like that of P. citrcumfirmatus.
The radula (PI. 16, fig. c) is rather long. The central teeth
have basal plates almost as broad as long, the median cusps
projecting below their lower margins, with well-developed
“ZOOLOGY. MOLLUSCA, 197
cutting points; the side cusps short, attaining about the mid-
dle of the basal plate, and directed outward; the lateral teeth
aré similar, but lack inner cusps; they are about eight in
number, and are followed by about four transition teeth; the
marginals number about fifty on either side, their cusps
become more slender toward the outer edge, and the basal
plates shorter. A central tooth, with five adjacent lateral teeth,
and a group of transition teeth, with a true marginal tooth, are
shown in the figure.
Helix albella of Chemnitz (not of Linneus) and H. ochro-
leuca of Pfeiffer (not Ferussac) are, I believe, synonymous with |
this species. The former is placed in Hurycratera in Pfeiffer’s
Nomenclator, and the latter has been compared to Pachystyla
rufozonata, a form somewhat similar in characters of the shell,
but belonging, of course, to a distinct group.
Peecilozonites Nelsoni, Bland. (Pl. 16, figs. J, kK, L.)
A fossil form, differing from Bermudensis in its much greater
size, the greater number of whorls, more convex base, coarser
striation, impressed sutures, and especially in the peculiarly
prominent dome-shaped upper whorls. These are, indeed, so
closely coiled as to resemble a specimen of P. circumfirmatus.
The coloration, imperfectly shown in several specimens before
me, is that of Bermudensis ; and whilst its affinities are with
the latter species, I regard it as a divergent branch, rather than
as an ancestor of that form.
As has been observed in other cases of species approaching
extinction, and probably subject to some decided and unfavor-
able changes of environment (in this case, perhaps, due to the
comparatively recent subsidence and partial submergence of
the island*), the shell exhibits great mutations and distortions
of form; sometimes the spire is elevated conical, sometimes
much depressed ; frequently the planes of the upper and lower
volutions are not parallel, and the spire is consequently canted
* See Challenger Report, Narrative, vol. i, p. 138.
198 THE BERMUDA ISLANDS.
to one side. The species is remarkably large, solid and roughly
sculptured for a zonitoid.
Pecilozonites Reinianus, Pfr. (Pl. 16, fig. 1.)
This heretofore unfigured species is discoidal in form, widely
umbilicate; the umbilicus about one-third the diameter of the
base, and exhibiting all the whorls; the apical whorl is smooth
and whitish ; the following whorls are quite convex, with deep
sutures, brownish, very prettily zigzagly flammulate with
chestnut color, like many of the species of Patula. The body-
whorl in adult examples is rounded; the base concave around
the umbilicus, and the general aspect that of Patula.
The Jaw is like that of P. circumfirmatus.
The radula (Pl. 16, fig. p) is similar to that of P. Bermudensis
except in the following points: the cuspsare larger, with much
more widely reflexed cutting points; the perfect lateral teeth
are seven on either side; the change to marginals is quite
-abrupt, as there are but two real transition teeth ; the mar-
-ginals number about sixteen on each side, the inner six or
‘seven of about equal size, the outer ones rapidly decreasing
toward the edge. The basal plates are longer than in the
other species. A central tooth with two adjacent laterals and
one marginal are shown in the figure.
Peecilozonites Reinianus Pfr. var. Goodei Pilsbry.
This form is similar in coloration and texture to P. Reinianus.
It is more broadly umbilicated, planorboid, the spire flat, or
even sub-immersed ; whorls six.
Alt. 8, diam. 10 mill.
Among the Bermudian shells sent to Prof. Heilprin from the
U.S. Nat. Mus. were a number of this variety, which seems to
me distinct enough fora name. The types of the variety are
No. 94,424 of the National Museum register, collected by G.
Brown Goode.
Pecilozonites Bermudensis Pfr.
The result of my dissection of this species was a surprise to
me, for I had expected thesame form of genitalia as is found
ZOOLOGY. MOLLUSCA. 199
in Zonites. The penis is rather short, convoluted, thick, the vas
deferens inserted at its termination, is rather short. The
cloaca is large, wide; below the penis there is a long club-
shaped sac, its base dilated where it enters the cloaca. This
is proably a dart-sack, although the specimens examined by
me contained no dart. On the penis near its base arises a
duct, which uniting with another arising opposite the penis, is
continued into a long duct coiled around the vagina, and ends
in asmall oval bulb, the receptaculum seminis or spermatheca.
The albumen gland, ete., offer no unusual characters. I did
not dissect out the ovo-testis. My specimens were quite hard,
having been in strong spirit.
The connection of the duct of the spermatheca with the penis
is unique, so far as I know, in the Pulmonata, and suggests the
probability of self-impregnation.
Mx. W. G. Binney has kindly called my attention to his note
upon the dentition and jaw of H. Bermudensis and the denti-
86, 105. The first species is placed by him with doubt in
Zonites with the remark that “it seems to belong to no de-
scribed genus.” HH. circumfirmata is left in Microphysa, for want
of a better place, but Mr. Binney points out the fact that the
species belongs to the Vitrinea rather than to the Helicea.
Pecilozonites circumfirmatus Redfield (PI. 16, fig. F).
A form with much the appearance of Hyalosagda, a group
with which it has been classed by some authors. It is a deli-
cate, subtranslucent, yellowish-brown shell, marked with brown
streaks, spots and flammules; the whorls are separated by mod-
erately impressed sutures; the apex is like that of P. Reimanus ;
the last whorl is more or less angulate around the periphery,
rather flattened below the angle, then convex, indented around
the narrow, deeply perforating umbilicus; there is a white cal-
careous deposit around the columella, inside, as in the other
species, and an acute white lamella which revolves within the
base near to the periphery, a character which none of the pre-
200 THE BERMUDA ISLANDS.
ceding species possess. The variation in form is very great—
specimens more elevated than my figure F being not infrequent,
and these are connected by examples more and more depressed
(fig. G) with the flattened lenticular form called by Pfeiffer H.
discrepans. ‘This extremely depressed variety, now figured for
the first time (Pl. 16, fig. u.), cannot be considered specifically
distinct from the P. cirewmfirmatus.
Jaw (PI. 16, fig. B) transparent, very thin, arcuate, with blunt
extremities and a wide obtuse median projection below.
Radula (PI. 16, fig. a) as described for P. Bermudensis, but
with only seven laterals, two or three transition teeth, and
about twenty-eight marginals. The marginals have longer
basal plates than in P. Bermudensis.
Helix (Microphysa) hypolepta Shuttleworth.
Of this minute form no diagnoses or figures have been pub-
lished, although the name has been upon the lists for many
years. The shell was apparently unknown to Pfeiffer except
by the remarks of Shuttleworth, who says under his diagnosis
of H. minuscula Binn.: “Altera species proxima, sed testa
aperte umbilicata, et anfr. ultimo basi devio distincta, in insula
Bermuda occurrit, cujus specimina plurima ab am. Bland ac-
cepi, atque H. hypolepta nominavi.”
The shell is minute, discoidal, whitish, subtranslucent and
shining, with wrinkles of increment above, nearly smooth be-
neath. The four whorls are very convex, quite gradually
widening, the last one with the periphery above its middle,
the lower lateral surfaces sloping somewhat as in H. vortex Pfr.
The aperture is small, not very oblique, oval. The lip is acute,
upper and basal margins quite arcuate, the: baso-columellar
margin slightly expanded. The umbilicus is broad, more than
one-third the diameter of the shell.
Alt. 1, diam, 2} mill.
It is evidently allied to H. (Microphysa) vortex Pfr., but is
much smaller, flatter, with broader umbilicus. I need not
compare Zonites minusculus with this shell ; a glance at the fig-
ures will show at once the difference.
ZOOLOGY. MOLLUSCA. 201
Helix hypolepta, Shuttleworth, Diagnosen neuer Mollusken,
no. 6, from the Bern. Mittheil., March, 1854, p.129.
The group Microphysa, in which I have placed this shell, has
been a stumbling block to most of the authors who have rec-
ognized it. It consists of small, umbilicated, thin, hyaline
shells, with sharp lip to the lunar-oval aperture, convex whorls
and impressed sutures. There is little in all this to separate it
from certain forms of Zonites (Z minusculus, for example).
But the Zonites have narrow aculeate marginal teeth to the
radula, while these shells, typified by H. Boothiana Pfr., have
the dentition of Patula. The marginal teeth are low and wide,
with several denticles.
APPENDIX.
NOTES ON THE RECENT LITERATURE OF CORAL
REEFS.
W.J.L. Wharton. “Coral Formations.” Nature, Feb. 23, 1888.
The author cites a number of submerged atoll-like banks in
the China Sea, depressed to depths of 30-60 fathoms, on the
rims of which the corals are still in active growth. Of such
are the Tizard Bank (with a length of 32 nautical miles, and
a depth of water over the rim of 4-10 fathoms, and in the cen-
tre of 80-47 fathoms), the Prince Consort Shoal, and the
great Macclesfield Bank, the last, 70 miles in length, and
covered, in its deepest part, with sixty fathoms of water. These
ate given as evidences of banks that are being built up through
coral-growth, and which are ultimately supposed to reach the
sarface. But the author gives no evidence to show that these
banks are not in reality banks of subsidence, drowned atolls,
similar to what Mr. Darwin considered the Chagos Banks to
be. The fact that corals are still growing on the rim in the
one case and not in the other, does not affect the question.
Capt. Wharton disputes Mr. Murray’s conclusion that the
great depth of atoll lagoons can be formed through simple
aqueous solution, and observes: “but the fact that for large
areas it [the surface of the reef] remains awash, and must
have so remained for ages, seems to me to point to the supposi-
tion that the removal of matter is too insignificant to account
for the formation of deep lagoon channels in this manner,
though doubtless it may explain the shallow pools and creeks
found in all fringing reefs.”
J. Murray. ‘Coral Formations.” Nature, Mch. 1, 1888.
A purely theorctical answer to the objections contained in
CORAL REEFS. APPENDIX. 203
the paper of Capt. Wharton, noticed above, relative to the
formation of deep lagoons through solution. No facts bearing
on the subject are given.
G.C. Bourne. “Coral Formations.” Nature, Mch. 1, 1888.
The author coincides with the views of Capt. Wharton as to
the inefficacy of solution in producing deep lagoons. “It has
seemed to me, as it has to him, that the solution of dead coral
rock in the interior of a reef dues not sufficiently account for
the formation of lagoons, and that the true cause of the atoll
and barrier lagoons surrounded either by a reef which is
awash, or by a strip of low land, lies in the peculiarly favor-
able bonditions for coral growth present on the steep external
slopes of the reef.” The favorable conditions are supposed to
be due to the action of currents on coral grow ths [not a better
food-supply], currents of moderate strength “ not so str ong as
to dash them [the corals] to pieces, but strong enough to pre-
vent deposition of sand. Such conditions are found every-
where on the external slopes,” where the “main part of the
current flows tangentially around the obstruction,” adds to
“ greatest advantage around the periphery of a reef,” aud forms
aring-shaped reef; “ no theory of solution is required to explain
the central depression.”
Mr. Bourne, as a non-believer in the theories of solution and
subsidence, fails, however, to explain how the ring-form was
constructed below the zone of coral-growth ; the extension of
the lagoon far below this line remains unaccounted for.
R. Irvine. ‘Coral Formations.” Nature, Mch. 15, 1888.
An attempt to determine the rate of solution of lime-car-
bonate in the sea. From experiments made on the genus
Porites (coral), using sea-water with a specific gravity of 1.0265,
and a temperature of from 70° F. to 80° F., the author arrives
at the conclusion that “dead or rotten coral exposed to sea-
water under these circumstances is soluble to the extent of 5 to
20 ounces per ton.” For further computation the author as-
sumes a reef with. a lagoon already formed, half a mile in
204 THE BERMUDA ISLANDS.
diameter. “This will give an area of about 600,000 square
yards, and supposing the water to be 3 feet deep and only one-
sixth part of this to be in actual contact with the dead coral,
we have 100,000 tons exerting its solvent action. This would
give, were the sixth part of the lagoon water to be expelled
and replaced with fresh sea-water at each tide, and taking the
solvent action at only 10 ounces to each ton, an amount of car-
bonate of lime removed equal to about 3000 tons each year.”
Mr Irvine curiously asserts that while he does “not insist
that such an amount of-carbonate of lime must year by year
be removed from the lagoon,” he yet thinks that the “ experi-
ments show that the carbonate of lime so removed may easily
exceed any additions to the lagoon by secretions of animals
living in it, or by coral sand carried into it by wind and waves
from the outer edge in the same space of time, and therefore
I think the balance of evidence is in favor of Mr. Murray’s ex-
planation of lagoon formation.”
But Mr. Irvine does not inform us on what grounds he as-
sumes that this internal waste may exceed accumulation or
accretion by growth. The argument is of that nature which
assumes that a “large” figure can accomplish anything, or
cover a multitude of omissions. The removal of 3000 tons of
material annually from a comparatively small basin appears
like a large amount, but when this quantity is closely scru-
tinized its vastness largely disappears. A ton of limestone,
allowing a weight of 150 pounds to a cubic foot, is the equiv-
alent in a general way of 15 cubic feet; 3000 tons will there-
fore represent 45,000 cubic feet of material. This amount dis-
tributed over an area of 5,400,000 square feet (600,000 yards, as
assumed by Mr. Irvine) would cover it to a depth of the ris of
a foot, or the zy of an inch. In other words, this 7s inch rep-
resents the annual waste according to Irvine; it is the equiv-
aleuts of a cubical block of rock of 36 feet dimensions. Whether
this amount is sufficient to satisfy the demands of the “ solution-
ists” or not, I am not in a position to say ; but from my observa-
tions of the waste of the Bermuda-lagoon shores, and the organic
CORAL REEFS. APPENDIX. 205
accumulation taking place over the floor of the lagoon, I am
positive that it does not by a long way meet the case of these
islands. The height of the shores in the Bermudas, doubtless,
permits of vastly excessive destruction, and the conditions,
possibly, cannot be absolutely compared with what we find in
other coral islands. Nevertheless, I am inclined to believe
that the organic accumulation (sea-urchins, shells, corals, For-
aminifera) alone over the floor of the lagoons fully covers the
quantity demanded in the computation. Bourne and Wharton
are likewise of the opinion that the amount of accumulation is
in excess of that of solution; the observations of these investi-
gators were made on low-land reefs, in which the special con-
ditions of the Bermudas were wanting.
J.G. Ross. “Coral Formations.” Nature, Mch. 15, 1888.
Also an attempt to determine the solubility of calcium car-
bonate in sea-water. Mr. Ross finds that a specimen of Oculina
varicosa, one of the hard West Indian corals, measuring about
S square inches of surface (with a weight of 16°3164 grammes)
lost by solution in 20 days 0°0748 gramme; and, similarly, a
specimen of the porous Madrepora scabrosa, from the Feejee
Islands, with a surface of 16 square inches, and a weight of
218540 grammes, lost in a period of 30 days 0:1497 gramme.
From a circular lagoon, four miles in diameter (or with a super-
ficial area of some 123 miles), it is concluded that at this
rate of solution there would be removed within a year 8472
tons. This if evenly distributed “would give a thickness of
half an inch covering the whole area of the lagoon.”
T. Mellard Reade has pointed out the error in this calcula-
tion (Nature, Apl. 5, 1888), which assumes for the quantity of
lime-carbonate removed by solution 125 times that which is
carried by the proposition. In other words, the removal of
8472 tons from the floor of the lagoon in question’ would only
tcrease its depth (per annum) by the 23s inch instead of one-
half inch. At this rate, as Mr. Reade points out, it would re-
quire a period of a million years to hollow out a lagoon of 60
206 THE BERMUDA ISLANDS.
fathoms depth. There are probably few geologists who will
permit such a long period for the formation of this accessory
structure in a coral-reef. And if the lagoon itself is so ancient,
how old must be the structure in which it is implanted? I
have discussed this subject on pp. 57-59, and have, I believed,
demonstrated that according to the determinations of the
quantity of organic and inorganic lime-sediment contained in
sea-water it would require a period of 100,000 years to build
up the thickness of a single foot from the oceanic abyss. In
shallow water, on the contrary, the process of construction may
be a very rapid one.
H. B. Guppy. ‘Coral Formations.” Nature, Mch. 15, 1888.
The author defines the conditions governing the form and
the life of reefs as follows: “On the outer side of a reef we
have the directing influence of the currents, the increased food-
supply, the action of the breakers, ete. In the interior of a
reef we have the repressive influence of sand and sediment,
the boring of the numerous organisms that find a home on
each coral block, the solvent agency of the carbonic-acid in
the sea-water, and the tidal scour. -‘These are all real agencies,
and we only differ as to the relative importance we attach to
each.” No new facts bearing on these points are given.
G.C. Bourne. “The Atoll of Diego Garcia and the Coral Formations of the Indian
Ocean.” Nature, April 5, 1888.
A description of the southernmost atoll of the Chagos Group,
with considerations bearing on the structure of the other reefs
and coral islands of the Indian Ocean. The main facts con-
tained in this paper, as well as those contained in the more
elaborate article published by the same author in the Proc.
Royal Soc., XLIII, 1888, are discussed in the body of this
work. Mr. Bourne finds evidence of an elevation of some 4
feet in the Diego Garcia reef, and hence concludes that the
fact. precludes “the idea of any subsidence being in progress,
as Mr. Darwin fancied to be the case in the Keeling atoll.”
The raised atolls—* atolls whose dry land just rises above the
waves and submerged banks ”—of the coral formations north
CORAL REEFS. APPENDIX. 207
of Madagascar are considered to be “proof that atolls are
formed in areas of elevation, and if the facts which I have
already stated concerning Diego Garcia are of any weight, it
would seem that most of the coral formations of the Indian
Ocean mark areas of elevation rather than of rest, certainly
they are not evidence of subsidence.” ‘That the last move-
ment in the region may have been one of elevation need not
be disputed ; and, as far as any general theory of coral forma-
tion is concerned, the same movement, or a reversed one, may
be taking place to-day. But Mr. Bourne does not show that
the characteristic structure of the islands under special con-
sideration was not formed during a period of subsidence, or
that no subsidence has really taken place; the fact that ele-
vation may be now taking place in no way precludes the pos-
sibility of an antecedent subsidence. The raised, marine strata
of continental areas might as well be taken in evidence of non-
submergence or subsidence. It would indeed be difficult to
prove, from what evidence Mr. Bourne has placed before us,
that Diego Garcia is not to-day subsiding, instead of rising,
despite the positive proof that is given of a recent elevation of
four feet. Assuming the correctness of Mr. Darwin’s hypothe-
sis of subsidence I fail to see what condition would be brought
about by a change of movement—i.c., if such subsidence as
caused the formation of “ drowned-atolls.” were followed by ele-
tion—other than that which is presented by Diego Garcia and
the other reefs which Mr. Bourne describes.
Mr. Bourne does not believe that the solution-theory of the
formation of lagoons is tenable, and he challenges “the state-
ment. that the destructive agencies within an atoll or a sub-
merged bank are in excess of the construction ” (vid. ant., note).
R. Irvine. “Coral Formations.” Nature, Apl. 26, 1888.
The author furnishes the following results as to the solubility
of different coral fragments (and other limestones) in sea-water,
in grammes per litre, for an exposure of 12 hours: dead
Porites, 0°395; coral sand 0°032; Bermuda harbor-mud 0°041.;.
Isophyllia dipsacea, from Bermuda, 0041; Millepora ramosa
208 THE BERMUDA ISLANDS.
(Bermuda) 0:086; Madrepora aspera 0:073; Porites clavaria
(Bermuda) 0°093; weathered oyster-shells, 0°331; crystallized
carbonate of lime, 0°123; amorphous carbonate of lime, 0°649.
The rate of solution here given is vastly in excess of the results
‘obtained by Mr. Ross.
J. Murray. “On the Structure and, Origin of Coral Reefs and Islands.” Proe.
Royal Soc, Edinburgh, X, 1880.
An exposition of the non-subsidence or accretion theory of
the formation of coral structures. The author thus sums up
his conclusions (p. 517):
1. Foundations have been prepared for barrier reefs and
atolls by the disintegration of voleanic islands, and by the
building up of submarine volcanoes by the deposition on their
summits of organic and other sediments.
2. The chief food of the coral consists of the abundant
pelagic life of the tropical regions, and the extensive solvent
action of sea-water is shown by the removal of the carbonate
of lime shells of these surface organisms from all the greater
depths of the ocean.
3. When coral plantations build up from submarine banks
they assume an atoll form, owing to the more abundant supply
of food to the outer margins, and the removal of dead coral
from the interior portions by currents and by the action of the
carbonic acid dissolved in sea-water.
4, Barrier reefs have built out from the shore on a foundation
of voleanic debris or on a talus of coral blocks, coral sediment,
and pelagic shells, and the lagoon channel is formed in the
same way as a lagoon.
5. It is not necessary to call in subsidence to explain any of
‘the characteristic features of barrier reefs or atolls, and all these
features would exist alike in areas of slow elevation, of rest, or
of slow subsidence.
The above constitute the main propositions of what is fre-
quently termed the “ Murray theory ” of the formation of coral
structures. These have already been discussed in the chapter
on “The Coral-Reef Problem,” and therefore call for no special
CORAL REEFS. APPENDIX. 209
consideration in this place. Mr. Murray, like most of the
authorities who reject the Darwinian hypothesis of subsidence,
gives no satisfactory data in support of his propositions (e., 1,
3), and he appears to be satisfied with the mere possibility
(doubtless to him, probability) of the correctness of the substi-
tute theory. Nor are any facts given to indicate that sub-
sidence has not taken place, although it is apparently con-
sidered more convenient to “do away with the great and
general subsidences required by Darwin’s theory.” But why?
In what respect is a long-continued subsidence more difficult
to be believed in than an equally long continued elevation ?
Yet Mr. Bourne, one of the strong upholders of the non-sub-
sidence theory, affirms his belief (vid. ant.) that “atolls
are formed in areas of elevation” and that “most of the coral
formations of the Indian Ocean mark areas of elevation rather
than of rest”! Is the question then reduced to one simply of
elevation or subsidence ?
Mr. Murray informs us that his views “arein harmony with
Dana’s views of the great antiquity and permanence of the
great ocean basin, which all recent deep-sea researches appear
to support.” It is a little difficult to see just how they are in
harmony with these views, and apparently they are much less
so than is the subsidence theory. Dana himself states (Re-
port Wilkes Exploring Expedition ; A. J. Science, 3d ser., XXX,
pp. 94, 97) that the course of the coral islands in the Pacific
conforms largely “ with the axial line of greatest depression,”
and that the deep-water area or trough which extends south-
eastward from Japan through the Central Pacific conforms
“well to the suggestion of the Darwinian theory.” I fail to
see how, if the coral growths are planted either on ascending or
stable areas, the condition specially agrees with any theory of
oceanic permanency. I should rather think the reverse, for per-
manency in the ocean would seemingly be established through
progressive subsidence. Mr. Murray, however, states that all
the volcanic regions which we know have in the main been
areas of elevation and we would expect the same to hold good
210 THE BERMUDA ISLANDS.
in those vast and permanent hollows of the earth which are
occupied by the waters of the ocean (loc. cit., p. 516). But in
what lies the evidence for these assertions? It would proba-
bly be as difficult to prove a general elevation in volcanic
tracts as it would be difficult to furnish that evidence in favor
of subsidence in coral areas which the opponents: to the Dar-
-winian hypothesis demand. Indeed, it is well known that by
many geologists voleanic tracts are considered to be areas of
subsidence, rather than the reverse. This is the view now
held by the foremost Austrian geologists, like Suess and Neu-
mayr, who associate the great crustal fractures or depressions
—the “sunken basins”—with voleanic phenomena. While
subsidence may, and with little doubt does, initiate volcanic
outflows, it seems reasonable to suppose that any very great
extravasation of material from the earth’s interior will produce
subsidence, except in so far as this subsidence may be locally
balanced by the material ejected. Dana, indeed informs us,
from a study of the deep-sea soundings of the “ Tuscarora” and
“Challenger,” that the region of the great island of Hawaii,
“although it is now actively volcanic and has little growing
coral about it,” has seemingly “undergone more subsidence
than the coral reef end of the chain, and that its height and
steepness of submarine slopes are due to the fact that its out-
flows of lava have kept ahead of the subsidence, and also built
-up nearly 14,000 feet above the sea” (A. J. Science, 3d ser.,
XXX, p. 101).
H.B. Guppy. ‘Notes on the Characters and Mode of Formation of the Coral-Reefs of
the Solomon Islands.” Proc. Royal Soc. Edinburgh, 1885-86, pp. 857-904.
This is one of the most comprehensive papers dealing with the
coral formations of any one single group of islands. The re-
gion of the Solomon Islands comprises, according to this in-
vestigator, all three forms of reefs—atolls, fringing-reefs, and
barrier-reefs—and thus presents special advantages. for the
study of the coral-reef problem. The author’s main conclusions
may be briefly summed up as follows:
CORAL REEFS. APPENDIX.. 211
1. Reefs appear at the surface as the result of growth at
about the sea-level or through upheaval.
2. The numerous detached submerged coral-shoals, which
represent the early condition of reef-structures, are not able to
raise themselves to within the constructive power of the break-
ers without the aid of a movement of elevation. Being arrested
in their upward growth, at depths varying between 5 and 10
fathoms, according to the exposed or protected character of
their situation, they form flat shoals of no great size.
3. Atolls of small size, ¢.¢, a mile or so across, do not as-
sume their characteristic form until they have reached the
surface. A small flat-topped shoal is first brought by up-
heaval to or above the sea-level; lateral extensions or wings
grow out on either side, so as to ultimately form a horse-shoe
reef. Such a reef presents its convexity against the prevailing
surface-currents, to which in truth it owes its shape.
4. The larger atolls have probably assumed their form be-
neath the surface, “since, according to the principle laid down
by Mr. Murray, they would then have a relatively smaller
periphery for the supply of food and sediment to the interior
than would be possessed by the small submerged shoals above
described.”
5. The true “growing edge” of a reef is the seaward slope
which extends outward between the depths of 4-5 and 12-18
fathoms; where this submarine slope is more than 10° or 12°,
“as is usually the case,” the sand and gravel arising from
oceanic degradation—which, with a more gentle slope, accumu-
lates at its base—is carried far beyond the depths in which reef-
corals thrive. In the case of reefs possessing a gradual sea-
ward slope, 7. ¢., less than 5°, the lower margin of this band of
detritus will lie within the zone of reef-building corals, and in
consequence a line of barrier-reef will be ultimately formed
beyond this band with a deep water channel inside. Succes-
sive series or belts of barrier-reefs thus formed may be brought
to the surface through a progressive rise of the sea-bottom.
6. Reef-building corals are not restricted to a superficial
212 THE BERMUDA ISLANDS.
zone of 100-120 feet; under favorable conditions “they may
thrive in depths of 50 or 60 fathoms, and thus we can readily
explain the apparently abnormal depths inside some atolls and
barrier-reefs.”
7. Reefs grow out on their own talus.
It will thus be seen that Mr. Guppy dissents from those who
hold to the theory of subsidence, but it can scarcely be said that
his facts are fully, or even largely, in accord with the substi-
tute theory of Mr. Murray; nor can they be said to be opposed
to the requirements of the Darwinian hypothesis. Perhaps
the most important of Mr. Guppv’s generalizations is that reef-
building corals can tbrive at considerably greater depths than
has been generally supposed, reaching under favorable condi-
tions to fully three times the depth of the commonly accepted
limit. Indeed, if this condition can be proved to exist it would
naturally do away with much of the necessity for a belief in
subsidence, since it would (or could) explain one of the most
distinctive features of coral structures, the deep lagoons and
channels. But the evidence on this point is of a very unsatis-
factory nature. Sporadic growths of reef-building corals may
well be found in depths exceeding the so-called coral-zone, but
until it can be shown that anything like a reef-development
takes place in this greater depth, we are justified in restrict-
ing the coral-zone to the narrow limits which have been gen-
erally assumed by naturalists. Mr. Guppy, indeed, informs us
that “under favorable conditions, reef-corals may thrive in
depths of 50 or 60 fathoms” (p. 903), but this statement seems
to rest merely upon an antecedent statement (p. 887) that “ off
the reef of Choiseul Bay I {the author] did not seem to have
reached this lower limit [of coral growth] in soundings of 40
futhoms.” And does this indicated depth of 40 fathoms rest—
as it certainly seems to—on the fact that in a cast of 31 fathoms
the arming preserved a “ rounded impression of the size of a
pilliard-ball, the inner surface of which retained the prints of
small cells as if of a Porites” (Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., June,
1884, p. 464)?
CORAL REEFS. APPENDIX. 213
Between thriving at depths of 50-60 fathoms and the finding
of an obscure impression at 31 fathoms there is surely a vast
difference. But Mr. Guppy himself informs us (“ Coral Sound-
ings in the Solomon Islands,” Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., June, 1884),
that in Selwyn Bay, on the west side of Ugi Island, the depth
at which coral thrives is between 20 and 25 fathoms (p. 461) ;
in Port Mary, Santa Anna, the limit is placed at 20-30 fathoms,
although tie deepest recognizable impression (of an Astraean)
was obtained from only 17 fathoms (p. 461); off Onua the
“lower limit at which coral thrives” is about 20 fathoms (p.
463); while off the northwest coast of Balilai Island, Bougain-
ville Straits, “a depth of 15 fathoms apparently represented
the lowest limit of the zone of corals” (p. 463).
Mr. Guppy’s own observations are, therefore, practically
confirmatory of the observations of nearly all other investiga-
tors who had preceded him. In fact, if we except the impres-
sion obtained at 31 fathoms, they are seemingly absolutely
confirmatory ; moreover, the impression may have been that
of a dead coral.
Dana well remarks (“Corals and Coral Islands,” 1872, p.
118) that “soundings with reference to this subject are liable
to be incorrectly reported by persons who have not particularly
studied living zoophytes. It is of the utmost importance, in
order that an observation supposed to prove the occurrence of
living coral should be of any value, that fragments should be
brought up for examination, in order that it may be unequiv-
ocally determined whether the corals are living or not. Dead
corals may make impressions on a lead as perfectly as living
ones.”
Tt is on this slender basis, if it is a basis at all, that Mr.
Guppy constructs his theory for the formation of harrier-reefs
(which inclose deep channels) and his explanation of the deep
lagoons of atolls. Prof. Bonney has, it appears to me, well an-
swered that “till Mr. Guppy can produce cases of growing reefs:
at depths well exceeding 25 fathoms, isolated instances of the
occurrence, at such depths, of living corals which are among.
214 THE BERMUDA ISLANDS.
the reef-builders do not really help him; and that till he can
do this ke is only supporting hypothesis by hypothesis”
(Nature, July 4, 1889).* The same: objection probably holds
to any inference being drawn from the discovery of a number
of reef-genera (Stylophora, Astrea, Pavonia, Cycloseris, Lepto-
seris, Stephanaria, Psammocora, Montipora, Alveopora, Rhoda-
roca in depths exceeding 30 fathoms off the Tizard and Mac-
clesfield banks, as reported by Bassett-Smith (Nature, July 4,
1889). At all events, more detailed information than we now
possess regarding this seemingly important find is needed be-
fore satisfactory conclusions can be based upon it.
There is another point with reference to the existence of
what might be called the second or deeper zone of coral growth,
which is supposed to be separated by a barren sand area
from the normal zone (100-120 feet), upon which Mr. Guppy
is not very clear. It is assumed that the sand resulting from
oceanic degradation destroys the life over which it is largely
precipitated, and that were it not for its bad influence corals
would be found growing on the deeper sea-ward slope as they
are found growing above. The first part of the proposition is
‘in a measure doubtless true, but the second does not necessarily
follow ; on the contrary, the fact that these corals are practically
never found in the “barren” area is almost positive evidence
against the truth of the proposition. Otherwise we should find
scattered and luxuriant growths just as we find them in the
interiors of the sand-swept lagoons. According to Guppy the
lagoons and lagoon channels of the Solomon Islands are largely
occupied “by sand and chalky mud; but in the shallower
portions, and especially in those situations which ‘are near the
breaks in the reef, corals thrive in great profusion” (Proc.
Royal Soc. Edinburgh, 1885-86, p. 861).
In the lagoon of Oima the individual coral-colonies are de-
scribed as being very much larger than they are on the outer
slope of the reef; “large masses of Porites ranged from 10 to 16
* T regret that up to the time of printing it has been impossible for me to secure a
copy of.the new edition of Darwin’s work on coral islands, edited by Prof. Bonney.
CORAL REEFS. APPENDIX. 215
feet in diameter; whilst the largest masses that I found in the
wash of the breakers at the outer edge of the reef, which be-
longed to species of Coeloria and Meandrina, measured only 5
feet across” (p. 890). Surely, with such evidence before us it
cannot reasonably be supposed that there could be such an
extermination from the outer slope, if reef-building corals
really thrive at these depths, as Mr. Guppy would lead us to
suppose.
With regard to the formation of the deep lagoons and chan-
nels and the actual thickness of the coral-made rock, Mr.
Guppy’s own views seem to be in conflict. The author ap-
parently inclines to the vicws of Murray and his followers
that these deep bodies of water are.after-formations, and that
they have been produced through steady removals of material.
_ As factors in this removal he cites the action of carbonated
waters (“solution theory ”) and the various forms of organic
degradation (pp. 893-97).
But no instance is cited where any considerable depth of
water has been brought about in this way; it is merely the as-
sumed hypothesis of possibility. On the other hand, we are
positively informed (pp. 878-79) that the lagoon of the Oima
atoll (which measures nearly two miles in its longest diameter),
with a depth of some 20 fathoms, is filling up through the ac-
cumulation of sand! And this condition exists in an atoll
which has seemingly experienced no “upheaval since the
commencement of its growth.”
The same condition prevails in the case of the Keeling atoll,
where, as Mr. Guppy informs us, “ the lagoon is rapidly filling
up with sand and coral” (Nature, Jan. 3, 1889). The facts are
thus clearly opposed to the theory that is assumed.
One of the points that have been specially insisted upon by
the opponents of the subsidence theory as being destructive of
that theory is the supposed thinness of the coral-made rock,
and much stress has been laid upon the researches of Guppy in
the Solomon Islands. This subject has been considered in the.
chapter dealing with the “Coral-Reef Problem,” but a few ad-
216 THE BERMUDA ISLANDS.
ditional remarks are here necessary. In his more recent pub-
lication on the “Solomon Islands” Mr. Guppy informs us that
the thickness of the coral limestone in the upraised reefs is in a
general way between 100 and 150 feet, and that he never found
an island “that exhibited a greater thickness of coral-lime-
stone than 150 feet or at the very outside 200 feet” (p. 71)
This is in itself an important observation, but it is just what
we should expect to find in a region of elevation, as we are in-
formed this one is. Without subsidence I fail to see how, on
the Darwinian hypothesis, a coral limestone could have a
greater thickness than 100-150 feet. The special significance
of the observation lies only in the fact that the same thickness
of coral-rock is associated with what is assumed to be a raised
atoll—namely, the island of Santa Anna. This island is de-
scribed as being nearly circular in form, with a length and
breadth of two and a half and two miles respectively, and con-
sisting “of a central basin surrounded by an elevated rim [100
to 200 feet in height], which is wanting at the middle of the
west or lee side. The bottom of the basin, which extends
downward to about 100 feet below the sea-level, is occupied
by two fresh-water lakes,” the largest of which measures about
half a mile in length, and has a depth of 18 fathoms in its
deepest portion. The highest elevation of the island, a vol-
canic peak, 470 feet in height, rises from the rim of the eastern
border, while another elevation, of 160 feet, is found in the
centre of the depressed basin.
It does not appear clear that this is a true atoll; and Mr.
Guppy himself admits that the island differs “from the typical
reef of this description,” although agreeing with the atoll-like
structures of the Solomon group (“Solomon Islands,” p. 113).
It is manifestly a part of that class of structures, the horse-shoe
shaped reefs, which “do not assume their characteristic form
until they have reached the surface,” and which the author
broadly distinguishes from the large atolls, which have proba-
bly “assumed their form beneath the surface ” (Proc. Royal Soc.
Edinburgh, 1885-86, p. 900), “A small flat-topped shoal is
CORAL REEFS. APPENDIX. 217
first brought up by upheaval to or above the sea-level. Lat-
eral extensions or Wings grow out on either side, so as to
ultimately form a horse-shoe reef. Such a reef presents its
convexity against the prevailing surface currents, to which in
truth it owes its shape ” (loc. cit., p. 900; this view of the forma-
tion of atollons or horse-shoe reefs is further elaborated in Mr.
Guppy’s paper “ Preliminary Note on Keeling Atoll,” Nature,
Jan. 3, 1889). Such are seemingly the conditions that we find
on Santa Anna Island, but the examination of the 100-fathom
contour line, which closely conforms to the actual bounda-
ries of the island, even: to the indentation of the 17-fathom
Port Mary—concerning which Mr. Guppy expresses himself
as having “been unable to obtain any satisfactory explana-
tion” (“Solomon Islands,” p. 117)—proves conclusively, I be-
lieve, that the surface exposed above water is merely the cor-
respondent of that which is below it, in other words, the island
has grown up on a base of its own form, which base is seem-
ingly a breached crateral cone of a volcano. It repeats on a
larger scale what is still presented by its own highest elevation,
the eastern voleanic cone, which carries “a small circular hol-
low, between 100 and 150 yards across and 35 or 40 feet in
depth. There was a time in its history, when the present sum-
mit alone appeared at the surface of the sea as a tiny ring of
coral reef, capping a submerged volcanic peak, the remains of
which still exist in: the shallow basin on the highest part of
the island ” (op. cit., p. 118). I think we are well justified from
this evidence in assuming that the large breached-ring is sim-
ilarly only an upgrowth from a larger crateral border, upon
which the small cone is perched. Mr. Darwin early recognized
the possibility of such a structure, and he guardedly affirmed
his belief that under suitable conditions a “ reef like a perfectly
characterized atoll” might be formed over the rim of a crater
(“Structure and Distribution of Coral-Reefs,” 1842, p. 89).
It is therefore in no way surprising that the thickness of the
coral-made rock on this island should be comparatively slight,
and nowhere exceeding 150 feet.
218 THE BERMUDA ISLANDS.
Mr. Guppy ingeniously argues from the character of the
rock which in many of the islands immediately underlies the
coral-limestone, and which in certain organic and mineral feat-
ures recalls the deeper deposits of the ocean, that the amount
of elevation in the region has been very great, and that the
coral formations are planted directly upon deep-sea or even
abysmal deposits. Thus, it is claimed in the history of Santa
Anna Island that “a submerged volcanic peak, lying at a
depth of probably 2000 fathoms below the surface, was covered
by a deep-sea mud, and then elevated until it became the base
of a coral atoll, which has been subsequently upheaved to-
gether with its foundations to a height of nearly 500 feet above
the sea” (“Solomon Islands,” p. 118). I fail, however, to see
the force of the argument. In the first place, it is well known
that the pelagi¢ organisms which contribute their remains to
the deep-sea deposits are large] y—if not, indeed almost wholly—
animal forms which inhabit the superficial zone of the sea;
likewise, the inorganic substances which accumulate at the
bottom—cosmic dust, disintegrated pumice, etc.—are derived
from the upper regions. Hence, manfestly, a shallow open-sea
deposit will have much the characters of the deep-sea deposits,
except in so far as we should expect to find it retain the special
features, faunal and lithological, of shallow-water formations.
These are said to be absent in the organic deposits immediately
underlying the coral-limestone of the Solomon Islands, and it
is accordingly concluded that they represent deep-sea forma-
tions. But the difficulty isnot removed through this interpre-
tation, since even if they are deep-sea deposits their elevation
into the upper zone would have brought them within the
reach of surface conditions. And yet the accompaniments of
these conditions seem to be wanting until we reach the corals
themselves. The negative character, therefore, gives no evi-
dence as to the depth at which the sub-coralline deposits were
laid down. But the fact that no coral rock is found at any
really great elevation above the sea is sufficient evidence, it
seems to me, that there has been no such marked elevation as
CORAL REEFS. APPENDIX. 219
Mr. Guppy suggests, otherwise it would be almost impossible to
account for the nearly equal altitude (above the water) which
this formation holds in the different islands of the island group.
Indeed, the fact that by far the greater number of coral-islands
and reefs lie practically at the level of the sea, or but a few hun- -
dred feet above it in the case of fringing-reefs, is an almost in-
superable objection to the theory which holds to the formation
of atolls through elevation; the uniform line of position is
opposed to any law of chances which might be assumed to
govern a broad elevation. The same objection naturally does
not apply to a theory of upgrowth in a stable area any more
than it does in the case of a subsiding one.
Mr. Guppy has, indeed, himself anticipated some of the ob-
jections to his own views, but it appears to me he has failed
to grasp their full significance. If, as it is claimed by the au-
thor, reef-building corals may thrive at a depth of 40, 50, or
60 fathoms, and if their structures are planted directly upon
deep-sea deposits, then manifestly the thickness of the coral-
made rock should be very much greater than has actually
been found to be the case.
Mr. Guppy attempts to meet this difficulty by assuming [the
immediately reversed position] that reef-corals will be usually
confined to depths of less than 20 or 30 fathoms, and that the
“yapid sub-aerial denudation, to which these regions of heavy
rainfall are subjected, would be an important agency in the
thinning away of the raised coral formations” (Proc. Royal
Soc. Edinburgh, 1885-86, p. 890). This is surely begging the:
question—indeed, it might be said, it is abandoning the main
proposition—since in the feeble development of the coral-made
rock the one vulnerable argument against the Darwinian hy-
pothesis was supposed to lie; it is in this fact that the oppo-
nents of the subsidence theory have intrenched themselves.
Yet we have here the testimony of the only investigator in the
premises that the thinness of the rock in question is probably
not as thin as it is supposed to be; indeed, for any evidence
that has been brought forward to the contrary, the rock may
220 THE BERMUDA ISLANDS.
have been very thick. In his review of the question of great
elevation Mr. Guppy thus expresses himself: “So great has
been the sub-aerial denudation of these islands, that, although
the elevatory movements have brought up to our view deep-sea
deposits which have been formed in depths probably of from
1000 to 2000 fathoms, yet, notwithstanding this great upheaval,
the caleareous envelopes, or ancient reef-formations, usually
disappear from the slopes of the large islands at heights of 500
or 600 feet above the sea, and never came under my observa-
tion at elevations much over 900 feet.
“ Besides the testimony afforded by the stri ppine off et the aa.
careous envelopes from the higher levels, abundant evidence
of the great degradation which these islands have experienced
is to be found in the exposure at the surface in various
islands of highly crystalline and other much altered igneous
masses (such as quartz-diorites, quartz-porphyries, gabbros,
felspar-rocks, altered dolerites, and serpentines), which, accord-
ing to Professor Judd and Mr. Davies, were formed and also
altered at great depths, and could only have been exposed by
extensive denudation. Of the rapid degradation of the surface
which the calcareous districts undergo in this region of heavy
rainfall, there can be no doubt. It should therefore be re-
membered, when examining this region, that although in post-
Tertiary times it has been an area of great upheaval, which a
moderate computation would place at not less than 12,000 feet,
it has also been an area of most rapid denudation” (“Solomon
Islands,” pp. 125-26). After this admission of enormous waste,
the argument from the thinness of the coral-limestone loses all
force; nor can it be reasonably claimed that the waste extended
only over a thin and upwardly-extended capping of rock, since
Mr. Guppy assumes for one of his important conclusions that
barrier and other reefs grow out on their own talus. With origi-
nation in a great depth there would be ample opportunity for
such outward growth, and the accumulation of vast thicknesses
of rock. And how would rock accumulated in this way differ
from rock accumulated through subsidence? And if great
CORAL REEFS. APPENDIX. 221
thicknesses of coral-made rock, whether formed in the one way
or the other, have been removed from the elevated reefs of the
Solomon Islands, wherein lies the evidence that there has been
no subsidence? ,
H.B.Guppy. ‘ The Solomon Islands.” 1887.
“The Coral-Reefs of the Solomon Islands.” Nature, Nov.
25, 1886.
“Observations on the Recent Calcareous Formations of the
Solomon Group made during 1882-84.”
The principal facts contained in these papers bearing upon
the coral-reef problem have been considered in the preceding
review of Mr. Guppy’s paper “Notes on the Characters and
Mode of Formation of the Coral Reefs of the Solomon Islands.”
W.J.L. Wharton. “ Masdmarhu Island.” : Nature, Sep. 1, 1888.
A delineation of two slopes of the coral reef surrounding the
small island of Masamarhu (situated in the Red Sea, in Lat.
18° 49’ N. and Long. 38° 45’ E.), as determined by Captain
Maclear, of H. M.S. “Flying Fish.” This is an important
contribution to the history of reef-structures, since it places
beyond doubt the fact that the seaward slope of some coral
islands is very abrupt, as earlier determinations had reported.
At one point removed about 375 feet from the growing edge of
the reef soundings indicated a depth of 1200 feet, or an aver-
age descent for this portion of the slope of some 72°. At a
distance of 1200 feet the depth was found to be 1300 feet.
Beyond this point the seaward slope is somewhat less abrupt,
and at a distance of about 1900 feet a depth of only 1500. feet
was found. Even this is a steep slope, averaging 38°, and
fully equal to the slope of the steeper volcanic cones; the first
portion of the descent, on the other hand, far exceeds the slope
of any mountain-peak with which we are acquainted, except
where sheer (so-called “ vertical ”) rock-precipices are presented.
Coral and coral sand were obtained from nearly all parts of
the slope, and at one point coral limestone was struck at 1300
feet. In two or three places the line dropped into deep and
222 THE BERMUDA ISLANDS.
narrow ditches, the walls of which on both the inner and outer
sides were very abrupt, rising at an inclination of about 80.°
One of these ditches, reaching in its bottom to 1200 feet, has a
depth, measured by the height of the outer wall, of upwards of
350 feet.
The facts of this island, so far as they go, are distinctly in
favor of the subsidence theory, and they have been properly
estimated by Prof. Bonney (Nature, May 23, 1889). Mr. Guppy,
on the other hand (Nature, May 16, 1889), sees in Captain
Maclear’s sections evidences favoring Murray’s views! How
they favor these views is not stated, nor do’ I believe that it
would be easy to find any confirmation in them of the theory
of organic upgrowth. Of course it can be assumed that out-
ward growth on an extended talus might (under special condi-
tions) produce such a steep slope, but this is far from proving
that the condition did in fact exist. Further, we should still
‘be compelled to prove that any such large talus can form (and
I believe Prof. Dana has well argued that it cannot readily
form), and that even if formed, there is that (vast) outward
growth upon it which has been assumed by Murray and
Guppy. As regards his own special views of the formation ef
‘barrier-reefs, etc., Mr. Guppy finds full confirmation in the
“ ditches” which were located on the slopes of Masdmarhu, for
he thus expresses himself: “The ‘ditches’ shown in these sec-
tions I look upon as indicating the formation of barrier-reefs
‘at considerable depths, and as giving remarkable support to
my views on the origin of these reefs” (Nature, May 16, 1889).
Mr. Guppy hai, indeed, pointed out (in a very unsatisfactory
manner) that reef-building corals may thrive at depths of 50
or 60 fathoms (300-360 feet), and that barrier-reefs and atolls
may begin to build up from these depths (answering the diffi-
culty with regard to the deep lagoons and channels); but now
‘we are suddenly called upon to assume that they build up from
of a depth of 200 fathoms (1200 feet)! Surely the most doubt-
ful cannot readily object to a theory which is so elastic as that
of coral upgrowth.
CORAL REEFS. APPENDIX. 223
H. B. Guppy. “Preliminary Note on Keeling Atoll, known also as the Cocos Islands.”
Nature, Jan. 3, 1889.
In this paper (letter addressed to Mr. Murray) the author
presents some interesting facts pertaining to the formation of
horse-shoe shaped atollons. His conclusion may be briefly
stated : “that wherever a coral island stems a constant surface-
current, the sand produced by the breakers on the outer edge
of the reef will mostly be deposited by the current on each side
of the island in the form of two lateral banks or extensions,
giving the island ultimately a horse-shoe form, with the con-
vexity presented against the current.”
A bank may then be “thrown up across the mouth of the
horse-shoe, and a small atoll with a shallow lagoonlet is pro-
duced.” Other points reached in Mr. Guppy’s examination of
the Keeling atoll are that “the lagoon is rapidly filling up
with sand and coral” and “that the outward extension of the
reef is effected, not so much by the seaward growth of the
present edge of the reef, as by the formation outside of it of a
line of growing corals, which, when it reaches the surface re-
claims, so to speak, the space inside it, which is soon filled up
with sand and reef-debris.”
Mr. Guppy prefaces his paper with an appeal to the shallow-
ness of lagoons, and criticizes our exaggerated notions of these
structures. On a true scale it is claimed that a typical lagoon
“would be represented by a film of water occupying a slight
hollow in the level mountain-top.” The author further ex-
presses himself as follows: “By thus grasping these facts, we
at once perceive that by reason of our failing to view an atoll
in relation to its surroundings, and through our misconcep-
tions of its dimensions, we have been led to introduce a great
cause to explain a very small effect. The slightly raised mar-
gins can be easily explained by causes dwelt upon by Murray,
Agassiz, and others. No movement of the earth’s crust. is
necessary for this purpose. The mode of growth of corals, the
action of the waves, and the influence of the currents, afford
agencies quite sufficient to produce the slightly raised margins
224 THE BERMUDA ISLANDS.
of an atoll.” It is, indeed, hard to class the logic of this argu-
ment. Is it to be presumed that because some geologists have
exaggerated notions of the configuration of an atoll and its in-
closed lagoon, that the lagoon does not exist? And if it really
does exist, how near are we brought to an understanding of
its structure by the simple conception of its being a thin film
of water perched upon the summit of a flat mountain-top?
The depth of the lagoon still remains the same, and so does
the height of the raised border. It might, indeed, as well be
‘urged that there is no necessity to account for the structure of
mountain-chains, since the highest of them are mere wrinkles
on the earth’s surface, corresponding in size to the irregulari-
ties on the rind of an orange! Comparisons are useful, but
they are not explanations.
Johannes Walther. ‘‘Die Korallenriffe der Sinaihalbinsel.” Abhandl. d. mathem.
physisch. Classe der K6nig]. Sachs. Gesellsch. der Wissenschaften, xiv, 1888.
No new facts tending toward the solution of the coral-reef
problem are given in this valuable memoir. The coral-struct-
ures described are mainly fringing-reefs, and they occur in a
region of existing or recent elevation. The author calls atten-
tion to certain atoli-like or ring-formed islets which are found
associated with the fringing-reefs, and which in some instances
are immediate outgrowths from the latter. This circumstance
is immediately seized by Mr. Bourne (? G. C. B—Review of
Walther’s work in Nature, Dec. 20, 1888) as another instance
“added to the many now accumulating of barrier reefs and
atolls being formed in an area of elevation.” Walther gives
no data regarding these islets, except as to form. It seems
proper to ask in this connection: Are all circular or crescen-
‘tic growths of coral to be classed asatolls? Are fringing-reefs
which for a short distance leave the coast-line to be classed as
‘barrier-reefs? Are the dunes and sand-hills of the continental
areas mountains?
As touching the question of the formation of these islets in
an “area of elevation” it is interesting to note that Walther
recognizes a local subsidence of some 6 metres at the southern
CORAL REEFS. APPENDIX. 225
end of the Peninsula (Ris MuhAmmed), or almost in the very
region of the islets in question. Further to the north, on the
other hand, the reefs are strictly linear and conform rigidly
to the coast-line, and are confined within the 10-fathoin line.
In the region of the islets, opposite to the points where subsi-
dence is supposed to have taken place, the depths are much
greater.
8.J. Hickson. ‘Theories of Coral Reefs and Atolls.” Address British Assoc., 1888.
Some points contained in this paper, which is a broad re-
view of the opposing theories of reef-formation, have already
been noticed. Prof. Hickson considers himself an adherent
of the views of Mr. Murray, but feels doubtful about two points:
(1) “Whether the power of solution of sea-water is sufficient to
account for the formation of lagoons, and (2), whether in some
cases, such as the eastern part of the Feejee Archipelago -and
the Low Archipelago, the theory of subsidence may not be the
correct one.” The author believes that from the evidence of
the Great Chagos bank alone “the subsidence theory breaks
down,” but he gives no facts to support this position beyond
the belief that the banks are (or ought to be) rising instead of
subsiding, as they were considered to be by Darwin. The all-
important fact which Darwin pointed out, on the testimony of
Captain Moresby, that the rim of this supposed “ drowned atoll,”
lying at a depth of a few fathoms beneath the surface of the
water, consisted almost wholly only of dead coral, Prof. Hick-
son believes “ requires re-investigation,” because “ it is difficult
upon any theory to see why the rim only nine or ten fathoms
below the surface should not be covered with live coral.” I
fail to see why this assumed fact is opposed to “any theory ”
of coral growth, except the one which has been advanced or
sustained by Murray, Guppy, and Bourne. While it is ad-
mitted by both Darwin and Dana that the reef-building zone
extends down to a depth of 20-25 fathoms, it is well known
that in many coral regions the practical limit of coral develop-
ment is found at only half this depth. Thus, during the cruise
226 THE BERMUDA ISLANDS.
of the Wilkes Exploring Expedition the anchor of the “ Pea-
cock” was dropped [within the reefs of Viti Lebu and Vanua
Lebu] sixty times in water from twelve to twenty-four fath-
oms deep, and in no case struck among growing corals.
Patches of reef were encountered at times, but they were at a
less depth than twelve fathoms ” (Dana, “ Corals and Coral Isl-
ands, 1872, p. 116). Alexander Agassiz’s researches off the
Tortugas reefs lead to the conclusion “ that corals do not thrive
below a depth of from six to seven fathoms,” and the same
limit of growth was found by Louis Agassiz along the whole of
the main reef to the northward ” (“ Three Cruises of the Blake,”
vol. I, p. 74, 1888). Walther found dead reef (supposed to have
been brought about by subsidence) at Ras Muhammed at a
depth of only 10 metres, or 30 feet (“ Die Korallenriffe der Sinai-
halbinsel,” p. 465, 1888). Why then should the observations of
such a careful investigator as Captain Moresby be called into
question? It seems to me that they very closely agree with
the theory of subsidence.
H. 0. Forbes. ‘A Naturalist’s Wanderings in the Eastern Archipelago,” 1885.
The author describes the Keeling atoll, which he believes
to have risen through elevation, and finds reason to conclude
that the lagoons have filled in materially since the time of Dar-
win’s visit.
J.D. Dana. “ Origin of Coral Reefs and Islands.” Am. Journ. Science, 3d ser., vol. xxx,
1885,
An elaborate review of the objections raised to the Darwin-
ian theory, and a statement of facts in support of said theory.
This is by far the most searching analysis of the divergent
views bearing upon the theories of coral-reef formation, and,
as it appears to me, it satisfactorily meets all the objections
that have been raised against subsidence, besides showing the
inadequacy of the substitute theory. The author’s main con-
clusions are thus stated (p. 190): “The subsidence which the
Darwinian theory requires has not been opposed by the men-
tion of any fact at variance with it, nor by setting aside Dar-
CORAL REEFS. APPENDIX. 227
win’s arguments in its favor; and it has found new support in
the facts from the Challenger’s soundings of Tahiti that had
been put in array against it, and strong corroboration in the
facts from the West Indies.” The main points contained in
this paper are such as have already been considered, and re-
quire no lengthy discussion in this place. Prof. Dana is em-
phatic in his belief that subsidence (preceded by elevation)
was the condition which permitted “of the making of the
Florida, Bahama and other West India coral reefs,” a view in
which he is distinctly opposed to Mr. Agassiz. The evidences
for this subsidence in a comparatively recent period are found
in the mammalian remains of apparently Quaternary age
which have been discovere.l in Cuba and Anguilla, and which,
from their special characters, point to a former connection
between these islands and the mainland. The belief in
a connection between the Windward Islands and the South
American continent has also been held by Cope and Pomel.
Dr. Supan, in reviewing Prof. Dana’s paper (Petermanns Mit-
teilungen, vol. 32, pt. 1, Jatteraturbericht, p. 5, 1886), criticizes
the views relative to subsidence in the Floridian region,
since, it is claimed, even if direct connection did exist between
the West Indian Islands and the southern continent, there is
no proof that this connection extended northward to the
North American continent; and he further denies—without,
however, giving any reasons for this denial—that there ever
was any (Quaternary?) connection between the West Indies
and North America. This notion is probably based upon the
old idea (advanced by L. Agassiz and Le Conte) of the making
of the Floridian peninsula, in which no movements of either
elevation or subsidence were supposed to have been involved.
Since, however, this conception has proved to be a myth there
is no further reason, except in so far as the case may be sup-
ported by fact, to adhere to the old views of continental (or
oceanic) stability in this region. My own observations have
conclusively proved a peninsular uplift as late as the Post-
Pliocene period, and extending as far south as Lake Okeecho-
228 THE BERMUDA ISLANDS.
bee. But Iam by no means convinced, as I have elsewhere
stated (chapter on the “Coral-Reef Problem”), that a nearly
simultaneous subsidence did not take place in (and form) what
are now known as the Straits of Florida. The existence of such
a subsidence Bruch is considered likely by Suess (Antlitz der
Erde, vol. I), who has paralleled it with (supposed) simi-
lar occurrences in the eastern basin of the Mediterranean.
This view of the formation of the deep Gulf-chainel, I must
confess, appears to me far more captivating than that which
ascribes it to the wash of the Gulf-current.
But I believe direct evidence pointing to (although by no
means proving) a former connection between the Floridian
peninsula and the mainland to the south is not wanting. In
a paper on “ The Value of the ‘ Nearctic’ as one of the Primary
Zoological Regions,” published in the Proceedings of the Acad-
emy of Natural Sciences of Phila. for 1882, IT pointed out
certain facts in favor of considering the lower portion of the.
-peninsulaas a part of the Neotropical, rather than of the Nearctic,
realm; more recent zoological researches have still further de-
monstrated the correspondence existing between this suuthern
fauna and that of the tract lying to the south. But
more significant is the finding of the large assemblage of
mamnpialian remains which have lately been brought to light
from various parts of the peninsula. These have been dcter-
mined by Dr. Leidy to be the skeletal parts of the elephant,
mastodon, llama, rhinoceros, tapir, Hippotherium, the sabre-
tooth tiger (Machairodus), Glyptodon, ete. (Leidy: Proc. Acad.
Nat. Sciences of Phila., 1884-89). Neither the sabre-tooth nor the
Glyptodon, both of which are so closely related to the commoner
South American forms as to be barely distinguishable from
them, have heretofore been found in the Southern United
States. Of course they may yet be found, and indicate a pas-
sage over from South America by way of Mexico and the
Southern United States. But the great abundance of these re-
mains on the Floridian peninsula, and their absence either in
whole or in part from the Gulf States, are facts which, so far as
CORAL REEFS. APPENDIX. 929
they go, point to a former direct land-connection across what
is now an arm of the Gulf.
J.D. Dana. “ Points in the Geological History of the Islands of Maui and Oahu.”
Am, Journ. Science, 3d ser., xxxvii, 1889,
The author gives the results of artesian borings made on
Oahu (Sandwich Islands) which indicate the presence of coral-
rock at depths varying from 500 feet or less to upwards of 1000
feet beneath the level of the sea. In Mr. Campbell’s well, west
foot of Diamond Head, a continuous bed of coral, 505 feet in
thickness, was struck at a depth of 320 feet. The species of
coral found in these deep rocks not having been determined,
Prof. Dana holds that some doubt may yet be entertained as
to the beds in question affording positive proofs of srbsidence,
although there is a strong probability favoring this’view. It
is interesting to note in this connection that in the deep well
above noted'a soapstone-like rock, 20 feet in thickness, was
found immediately underlying the basal'bed of coral at a depth
of 1048 fect. Is this the correspondent of the soapstone-like
beds which Mr. Guppy found at many points underlying the
coral limestone of the Solomon Islands, and which that in-
vesligator considered to be evidence in favor of the view that
corals began to grow upward from great depths? This point
is fully discussed in the review of Mr. Guppy’s papers
R. von Lendenfeld. A review of Mr. Bourne’s paper on the Diego Garcia Reef.
N iturwissenschaftliche Rundschau, Oct. 18, 1888.
The author finds no facts either in this paper, or in the
papers of Murray, Agassiz, and Guppy, which are opposed to
the theory of subsidence. He justly calls attention to the low-
level of coral islands generally, which is opposed to any theory
of the progressive elevation of the ocean bottom. The great
development of the dolomite reefs of southern Tyrol (of the
Rheetic period), such as the Langkofel, are cited in evidence
against the assumed non-existence of thick coral limestones in
any of the older geological formations.
It is important to note in this connection the observation by
Suess that nowhere in the Gosau deposits, nor in the coralifer-
230 THE BERMUDA ISLANDS.
ous beds of Cormons (Eocene) or Crosara and Castel Gomberto
(Oligocene), did he observe any evidence of the existence of
massive coral structures, such as might be strictly compared
to the modern reefs. (Antlitz der Erde, ii, p. 407, 1888.)
A. Geikie. Presidential Address delivered before the Royal Physical Society of Edin-
burgh. Proc. Royal Phys. Soc. Edinburgh, viii, 1883-84.
A review of the rival theorics of coral-reef formation. Prof.
Geikie gives in his adhesion to the views of Mr. Murray, but
adduces no fact which is inconsistent with the theory of sub-
sidence.
J. Rein. “Die Bermudas-Inseln und ihre Korallenriffe, nebst einem Nachtrage gegen
die Darwinische Senkungstheorie.”” Verhandl. d. erst. deutsch. Geographentags,
1881.
I have not seen this paper, but the facts contained in it, so
far as the Bermudas are concerned, seem to be the same as
those which are given in his original memoir, and which are
discussed in the main part of this work.
K. Semper. “ Animal Life as affected by the Natural Conditions of Existence.’ 1881.
In this work the author reviews his observations on the
coral-structures of the Pelew Archipelago—to which reference
is made in the chapter on the “Coral-Reef Problem ”—and
asserts his positive conviction that the evidence obtained at
this point is directly opposed to the theory of subsidence. The
principal basis for Semper’s conclusions is that we have here an
association of all three classes of reefs—atolls, fringing-reefs and
barrier-reefs. These he considers to have arisen in a region of
elevation. Semper has, I believe, given us positive proof of
elevation, but I fail to see how this elevation in any way pre-
cludes the possibility of a subsequent subsidence; nor can I
find any facts in the description of the islands which speak
against such a subsidence. On the contrary, the author him-
self admits that a change or arrest of movement (of elevation)
has taken place when he asserts: “The facts here adduced
suffice, as it seems to me, to prove that, in the first place, a
quite recent upheaval must have occurred ; and secondly, that
that period of upheaval must have passed into the present con-
CORAL REEFS. APPENDIX. » 931
dition of very slow elevation or absolute rest without any con-
spicuous break” (p. 263). If we assume that this arrest of
movement, passing into a condition of absolute rest, had still
further progressed into one of subsidence, I think we will then
be able to understand all the special (and apparently antago-
nistic) features of the region to which Prof. Semper refers, and
in a manner much more satisfactory than is offered by the ex-
planation of the distinguished German naturalist. It seems
to me that the condition here is almost precisely what we find
in the Bermudas: a coral-made land, which had been elevated
to some little height above the sea, undergoing waste and de-
struction through subsidence. This phase in the history of
Bermuda is so clear that there can be,no question concerning
it. In the Bermudas we have also a near-lying reef on the one
side (likewise the weather side) and a far-off reef on the other,
with an intermediate body of water of some 50-60 feet depth.
But Prof. Semper himself gives data which lead one to sup-
pose that subsidence has in fact taken place. The biting out
or undercutting of the limestone plateau to which he calls at-
tention (p. 254), and which may be paralleled with the similar
process on the south shore of the Bermudas, surely argues
much more strongly in favor of subsidence than of elevation ;
it certainly seems impossible for a rock to be at the same
time building up and breaking down. But further, Prof.
Semper informs us that it “is certain that the enclosed island
of Babelthuap was formerly much broader than it now is”
(p. 270). This condition is scarcely compatible with any theory
of elevation, and more nearly accords with the assumption of
waste through oceanic encroaches permitted by subsidence.
Indeed, the author himself seems not to have been convinced
that there was no subsidence, since he asserts that “we are
obliged, under all the circumstances, to assume the co-opera-
tion of some other force besides subsidence when endeavoring
to explain the peculiar formation of the northern reef, but still
without wholly excluding the effects of subsidence” (p. 253).
Prof. Semper rejects the hypothesis that the lagoon-ring of
an atoll is formed through accelerated marginal growth (p.
227); he attributes the lagoon-basin to decay and scour.
7 1 ces
Loolody of the Bermudas
oH AN ACAI
rmuda
Poke
pa IBD iahier
ey
>
ZL @) ole
PI 14.
ZLoology of the B ean,
dei.
,
Heilprin
1
Berm
ne
A
ie
of
=
Ny
ia ale
on
Zoology of the Bermuda
Ful?
Geo S Harris &Sone itn Phila
)
Zoolody of the Bermudas.
ty
Sa
t Nye tie Tag ag’
.
oi 8 Oe Big of
v1,
>
Je
»
bt aie!
Pee
~
ae
be
eee
*
a} ae ey
oo
.,
-
€,
Aare
Stas
os
a
‘,
2"
v.
‘
r
=)
4
ne
rie
7
Nett Fa
ml
ee
or tee
SGA ol
f
tire?
ee
cat
wee
‘
s
f
LULA LY
¢
Live Music
Archive
Librivox
Free Audio
Metropolitan Museum
Cleveland
Museum of Art
Internet
Arcade
Console Living Room
Open Library
American
Libraries
TV News
Understanding
9/11